Farmers’ characteristics
Out of 200 questionnaires administered 99 and 90 questionnaires were responded from Kindo Didaye and Loma districts, respectively. The most reason for missed ones was after they started the interview they fail to complete the response due to suspicion or were unable to understand the existing situation in the area due to lack of knowledge or recently arrived.
The age group of the interviewee ranges from 25 to 70 years. In Kindo Didaye the 99 interviewees had an average age of 39.4+ 10.6 and range from 25 to 70 years of old, among them 14 were female and 85 were male; whereas in Loma 90 interviewees had an average age of 43.1+ 9.93 and ranges from 26 to 70 years of old, out of these 6 females and 84 male farmers participated. All of them were either owned livestock or took the responsibility of their relatives to keep animals.
Perception on livestock herd size before and after dam construction
Data generated from the questionnaire survey indicate that livestock production systems in both districts were based on a free-grazing system. Only kids, calves and weak animals stay around the homestead while all adults were allowed to move toward free grazing land near to Omo-Ghibe River. In these two districts, tributaries and the main river are used as water sources for their animals. All livestock species kept in both districts were local breeds and breeding practice is using the natural mating technique. Animals were kept to build economic status, serve as a source of food through milk and meat. There was little draught power activity due to inaccessible and rugged land topography. The most common cereal crops produced were sorghum and maize, but production was very limited due to ragged and narrow arable land. Especially in Kindo Didaye landholding was very narrow, because of land shortage they use to plant more root crops. In the Loma district, communities keep their animals on the grazing site for long period near the artificial Lake created by the Ghibe-III dam. At night animals are kept in the open-air collecting pen. Animals were allowed to come back homestead either for mass vaccination or treatment and/or if a cow was at trimester pregnancy and a milking cow. Whereas, Kindo Didaye district farmers near to the downstream do keep their animals in the homestead but daily move down to the riverside for grazing and brought back to home at night.
Farmers' responses showed they owned different herd size before six years and in recent years. Accordingly, the opinions of interviewee in two districts were described as follows. In the Kindo Didaye district majority of them had more experience in keeping cattle followed by goats and poultry than sheep and equine. However, the herd and flock size was limited within small (<5) and medium (6-20) herd sizes, currently, no one among 99 interviewed had a large herd size. Six interviewees had a large cattle herd size before six years; currently, thirty-three (33.3%) HH had medium cattle herd size and none (0%) of the respondents had large herd size at the time of data collection. Goat, sheep and poultry flock size were also dominated by small flock size. Such flock and herd size shift from medium and large size to small herd size in Kindo Didaye district might be an indicator of the severity of disease problems associated with rampant animal trypanosomosis prevalence in the area.
It was observed that livestock ownership before dam construction in both study districts had no significant difference (p>0.05) as shown in Table 1. However, following the construction of the dam, livestock herd size has decreased in Kindo Didaye District (downstream the dam) while cattle ownership appear to have improved in Loma District (upstream). Accordingly, the sum of medium and large herd size compared, in Loma district, out of 90 respondents 77(85%) of them had greater than 6 cattle herd size after dam construction compared to the percentage before dam construction 62(69%) which was significantly (p<0.05) higher at present than before. Conversely, in Kindo Didaye district, out of 99 respondents within the district, 33(33.3%) of them had greater than 6 cattle herd size after dam construction compared to the proportion before dam construction 53(53.6%), which was significantly (p<0.05) reduced after dam construction.
The proportion of questionnaire survey respondents having sheep and goat flock size of greater than or equal to six has significantly increased after dam construction in Loma District (p <0.05). On the other hand, respondents in Kindo Didaye have seen a decline in goat ownership while there was no change for sheep herd size following the construction of the Ghibe - III dam.
Table 1: livestock herd size owned by respondents in Kindo Didaye and Loma districts after and before dam construction
spp
|
Herd/flock
|
Frequency of respondents (percentage)
|
After dam con.
|
Before dam con.
|
|
Size/ HH
|
Kindo Didaye
|
Loma
|
Kindo Didaye
|
Loma
|
Cattle
|
0
|
1(1.01%)a,c
|
2(2%)b,c
|
4(4.04)a,d
|
8(8.9)b,d
|
|
1<5
|
65(65.7%)a,c
|
11(12.2%)b,c
|
42(42.42)a,d
|
25(27.8)b,d
|
|
6<20
|
33(33.3%)a,c
|
54(60%)b,c
|
47(47.5)a,d
|
53(58.9)b,d
|
|
>20
|
0
|
23(25%)b,c
|
6(6.1)a,d
|
9(10)b,d
|
Goat
|
0
|
49(49.9%)a,c
|
8(8.9%)b,c
|
61(61.61)a,d
|
13(14.4)b,d
|
|
1<5
|
48(48.1%)a,c
|
18(20%)b,c
|
32(32.32)a,d
|
50(55.6)b,d
|
|
6<20
|
2(2%)a,c
|
56(62.2%) b,c
|
7(7.07)a,d
|
26(28.9)b,d
|
|
>20
|
0
|
8(8.9%) b,c
|
0
|
1(1.1)b,d
|
Sheep
|
0
|
85(85.5%)a,c
|
36(40%)b,c
|
93(93.5%)a,d
|
58(64.4%)b,d
|
|
1<5
|
14(14.5%)a,c
|
41(45.6%)b,c
|
6(6.5%)a,d
|
29(32.2%)b,d
|
|
6<20
|
0
|
13(14.4%)b,c
|
0
|
3(3.4%)b,d
|
|
>20
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Poultry
|
0
|
51(51.5)a,c
|
4(4.4)b,c
|
71(71.7)a,d
|
18(20)b,d
|
|
1<5
|
39(39.4)a,c
|
13(14.4)b,c
|
20(20.2)a,d
|
51(56.7)b,d
|
|
6<20
|
9(9.1)a,c
|
68(75.6)b,c
|
7(7.1)a,d
|
19(21.1)b,d
|
|
>20
|
0
|
5(5.6)b,c
|
1(1.0)a,d
|
2(2.2)b,d
|
Equine
|
0
|
96(96.5)a,c
|
67(74.4)b,c
|
96(96.5)a,d
|
78(86.7)b,d
|
|
1<5
|
3(3.5)a,c
|
23(25.6)b,c
|
3(3.5)a,d
|
12(13.3)b,d
|
|
6<20
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
>20
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0= with no animal, 1<5=small; 6<20= medium; >20 = large herd /flock size per household (HH); Superscript “a and b” compares between two districts at present and before dam construction; whereas superscript “c and d” compares the present and the past values within districts.
Knowledge on major livestock diseases
During the semi-structured open and closed questionnaire survey, farmers have listed major livestock diseases chronologically based on significant impacts on their livestock productivity. In both district, all questionnaire respondents have listed main diseases which they perceived prevalent any time in their experience. The first six diseases that were frequently mentioned by respondents were listed in Table 2, while those less frequently mentioned were collectively categorized as "others". Bovine Trypanosomosis ranked first with 97.8% and 93.4% followed by Blackleg with the proportion of 85.5% and 79.8%, in Loma and Kindo Didaye district, respectively. Lumpy skin disease (LSD) was reported with high frequency in Loma compared to Kindo Didaye district. Respondents believed that the presence of the artificial Lake coupled with wind contributed for the multiplication and spread of the vector and hence the disease LSD appeared more West of artificial Lake.
Table 2: List of major livestock diseases, frequency and percentage of the respondents in Loma and Kindo Didaye districts
|
Loma
|
Kindo Didaye
|
Diseases
|
n
|
% farmers
|
n
|
% farmers
|
Trypanosomosis
|
88
|
97.8
|
93
|
93.4
|
Blackleg
|
77
|
85.6
|
79
|
79.8
|
Anthrax
|
64
|
71.1
|
66
|
66.7
|
LSD
|
73
|
81.1
|
5
|
5.1
|
FMD
|
42
|
46.7
|
12
|
12.1
|
Pasteurolosis
|
47
|
52.2
|
0
|
0
|
Others*
|
5
|
5.6
|
42
|
42.4
|
* GIT parasite, leech, babesia, bloat and etc. diseases mentioned by at least one farmer; n= frequency of respondents
Knowledge on clinical sign of animal trypanosomosis
Among the disease listed during questionnaire survey trypanosomosis received the highest frequency and number one priority disease. Knowledge of the community about clinical signs of trypanosomosis was further assessed and frequently mentioned ones were summarized (Table 3). Out of seven clinical signs listed for bovine trypanosomosis, 'emaciation' and 'rough hair coat' were the most frequently mentioned signs. All seven clinical signs listed were consistent with conventional clinical signs written in veterinary text books [11, 14]. Response differences between two districts were compared statistically using Mann Whitney test. The smaller U test values were compared with tabulated critical values using the formula mentioned in the methodology. Therefore, the calculated results of U1 and U2 values were 17 and 32, respectively. The critical value based on the degree of freedom in two districts n1=n2=7 was 8. Whereas the calculated smaller U value, in this case, was U=17. Since, 17>8, there is no significant difference between the two districts on knowledge of clinical signs listed for bovine trypanosomosis (Table 3).
Table3: Knowledge of the respondents on most frequently mentioned clinical signs of animal trypanosomosis in Loma and Kindo Didaye districts
|
Loma(n=90)
|
Kindo Didaye(n=99)
|
Clinical signs
|
freq
|
R1
|
Response
%
|
Clinical signs
|
freq
|
R2
|
Response
%
|
Emaciation
|
88
|
12
|
97.8
|
Emaciation
|
91
|
14
|
91.9
|
Swollen lymph node
|
64
|
7
|
71.1
|
Swollen lymph node
|
31
|
5
|
31.3
|
Fever and dry muzzle
|
72
|
9
|
80
|
Fever and dry muzzle
|
9
|
2
|
9.1
|
Rough coat hair
|
83
|
11
|
92.2
|
Rough coat hair
|
90
|
13
|
90
|
diarrhea
|
69
|
8
|
76.7
|
Diarrhea
|
8
|
1
|
8.1
|
Cough/salivation
|
77
|
10
|
85.6
|
Coughing/salivation
|
40
|
6
|
40.4
|
Others a
|
10
|
3
|
11.1
|
Others b
|
24
|
4
|
24.2
|
|
sum
|
=60
|
|
|
sum
|
=45
|
|
a; alopecia, lacrimation, weakness, stop regurgitation, lethargy,
b; anorexia, shivering, lacrimation, constipation, tail lesion, bloat, death(each of these signs mentioned by at least one farmer)
R1=group one rank: R2= group two rank
Knowledge and perception on transmission of bovine trypanosomosis
Majority of respondents in the Loma district associated trypanosomosis transmission with biting fly and tsetse flies (58.9%) followed by animal contact (25.6%) during feeding and watering whereas 7.8% of farmers reported transmission is only through tsetse fly. Whereas 41.4% of farmers in Kindo Didaye perceived transmission is mainly associated with the watering site and tsetse fly bites (Table 4). In both cases, the route of transmission associated with tsetse and biting flies scored high frequency than others. Knowledge of respondents on animal trypanosomosis transmission was compared between the two districts using U test. Test statistics results of U1 and U2 were 49.5 and 31.5, respectively; for Loma and Kindo Didaye. The smaller U was 31.5 and compared with tabulated critical value of n1=n2=9 with two sided level of significance at (α=0.05). Tabulated critical value of U at 9 degree of freedom is 17. Therefore, 31.5 > 17, hence there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the knowledge and perception of respondents on means of transmission of bovine trypanosomosis.
Table 4: Farmer’s perception on transmission of trypanosomosis in Loma and Kindo Didaye districts
Route of transmission
|
Loma=90
|
Kindo Didaye=99
|
Transmission of disease
|
n
|
R1
|
%
|
n
|
R2
|
%
|
Animal contact at feeding & watering ,
biting and tsetse fly
|
23
|
15
|
25.6
|
29
|
16
|
29.3
|
Biting and tsetse fly only
|
53
|
18
|
58.9
|
10
|
14
|
10.1
|
Animal contact, feed & water
|
2
|
7.5
|
2.2
|
5
|
11
|
5.5
|
Tsetse fly only
|
7
|
12
|
7.8
|
8
|
13
|
8.1
|
Feed and water
|
0
|
2.5
|
0
|
1
|
5.5
|
1.1
|
Water and tsetse fly
|
0
|
2.5
|
0
|
41
|
17
|
41.4
|
Water only
|
0
|
2.5
|
0
|
4
|
10
|
4
|
Others
|
3
|
9
|
3.3
|
0
|
2.5
|
0
|
I don’t know
|
2
|
7.5
|
2.2
|
1
|
5.5
|
1
|
|
sum =76.5
|
|
sum 94.5
|
|
Community perception on seasonality of bovine trypanosomosis
Individual response of farmer's in both districts revealed about seasonality of trypanosomosis. All respondents agreed trypanosomosis was seasonal; but differed on which season the disease is more prevalent or severe. In Kindo Didaye district, 40% of respondents' perceived trypanosomosis is more prevalent in dry than rainy season whereas 42% responded the problem prevails in both dry and rainy season. On the other hand, in Loma district, 62.2% respondents believed trypanosomosis is more prevalent in rainy season followed by 25.6% respondents who thought the problem is common in dry season. Few Loma district respondents (7.7%) perceived the problem exists in both dry and rainy seasons, and the remaining 3.3% of respondents couldn't decide in which season the disease exist. Their main reason for seasonality also differs among respondents within two districts. A substantial number of the respondents perceived that drought and feed shortage contributes more to the occurrence of trypanosomosis in the dry season; whereas the other group of interviewee conceived trypanosomosis occurrence increases in the rainy season due to increase tsetse population after the rainy season.
Perception on the susceptibility of animal species to trypanosomosis indicates 98% of respondents in the Kindo Didaye district agreed cattle are the most susceptible followed by goats. Whereas almost all respondents' in the Loma district has mentioned cattle, equine and goats followed by sheep are more susceptible in chronological order.
Community perception and practices on animal health management
In Loma district 87.8% respondents perceived trypanosomosis problem reduced significantly because of improved health care through trypanocidal drug treatment and spray via extension health workers in their village. They also believe tsetse fly population reduced since dam construction because of vast area of tsetse suitable vegetation and grazing land covered by water reserve. But 2.5% of respondent believes water reserve affected their honey production due to deforestation as a result of artificial Lake created. Whereas, in Kindo Didaye 40% of respondents perceived the reduction of trypanosomosis is due to treatment only and 45% of respondents believe the reduction is by treatment and spray. Respondent emphasized there is still intensive tsetse challenge and trypanosomosis disease in Kindo Didaye district, and their livelihood remained the same as before.
According to the information from the respondents, the type of trypanocidal drugs commonly used in the area are diminazene aceturate ("kish kish") and trypamidium group ("duluwa") whereas Deltamethrin (pour-on)was mentioned as the most common insecticide spray. All respondents use one or both trypanocidal at least once in a month (Figure 3). Treatment costs also varied among individuals and between districts. The minimum cost recorded was 10 Ethiopian Birr per animal per treatment, and the maximum drug cost was 60 Ethiopian Birr as shown in the pie chart (Figure 2). According to the frequency of response in the Loma district, 97% of them expend within the range of 10 up to 30 Eth Birr per animal per treatment, whereas in Kindo Didaye only 66% of them expend within the same range. Few of them spend up to 60 ETH Birr per animal per treatment that was costly. Relatively Kindo Didaye respondents spend more expensive drug costs within a range of 31-60 ETHB (34%), whereas only 3% of respondents in the Loma district as shown in Pie chart. This may be associated with relapse of infection, type of drugs available (Trypamidium is more expensive than diminazene) or shortage of drug supply in Kindo Didaye district.
Treatment frequency per month
In both districts majority of them responded that they treat their animals at least two times per month. 87/189(46%) of them treat their animals twice per month, whereas 56/189(30%) of them treat only once per month. The remaining respondents treat more than twice when a treated animal is not responding to the treatment given. As shown in figure 3 there was little difference between districts. In Kindo Didaye 51% of them treat once per month and 35% of them treat twice per month, the remaining respondent treats animals if previously treated animals didn't show improvement it will be treated for the third and fourth times per month. One round treatment per month may be associated with effectiveness of drugs and/or proper usage. On the other hand, in the Loma district, the majority (57.8%) of them treats twice per month and 26.7% of them treat three times and more. Very few of them (5.6%) responded as they are treating animals once per month. This intensive treatment might indicate the presence of a high disease challenge or there might be drug-resistant trypanosomes circulating in the area and/or there could be also an under-dosing problem or else farmers are more curious to protect their animals before infection developed. Treatment was usually handled by community health workers, animal owners and Animal health assistants at village level.
Community Perception on trypanosomosis and tsetse fly population after dam construction
Respondents of the two districts mentioned the change existed on disease trypanosomosis after the dam construction. 70.7% of respondents in the Kindo Didaye district believed that there is no reduction in the prevalence of trypanosomosis and tsetse fly population whereas 29.3% of respondents believed there is a reduction in prevalence. Among these who don't believe, 64.6% of them concurred that dam construction has no effect on the reduction in their village.
Whereas, in the Loma district 87.8% of the respondents believed that there is a reduction in the prevalence of trypanosomosis and tsetse population; of these 77.8% of them agreed that dam has contributed to the reduction of trypanosomosis prevalence and tsetse population. Whereas 12.2% disagree about the reduction of the problem and they believe also dam construction has no effect on prevalence reduction as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Frequency of respondents about reduction of trypanosomosis prevalence and tsetse population after dam construction in the study site
Study site
|
n
|
Is there reduction of tryps* & tsetse
|
Does the dam has effect
|
|
|
yes
|
no
|
yes
|
no
|
Kindo didaye
|
99
|
29(29.3%)
|
70(70.7%)
|
35(35.4)
|
64(64.6%)
|
Awasho
|
29
|
18
|
11
|
14
|
15
|
Hamaya
|
35
|
4
|
31
|
11
|
24
|
Petere
|
35
|
7
|
28
|
10
|
25
|
Loma
|
90
|
79(87.8%)
|
11(12.2%)
|
70(77.8%)
|
20(22.2%)
|
Zimawaruma
|
34
|
28
|
6
|
25
|
9
|
Denbella Bolla
|
21
|
19
|
2
|
18
|
3
|
Subotulema
|
35
|
32
|
3
|
27
|
8
|
Tryps* = trypanosomosis
Wild life status before and after dam construction
Questionnaire interviewee in both Kindo Didaye and Loma districts shared their experience on wildlife distribution in the area. Some 15 years back the Omo-Ghibe River gorge particularly where Ghibe-III dam built was naturally endowed with abundant fauna and flora. There were different species of wildlife's, including lion, buffalo, woodland antelope, common warthog, bushbuck, Hyena's, monkey, apes and others. However, after ten years due to human activities and deforestation in the area for Ghibe-III hydroelectric dam construction, wildlife populations and diversity was believed to be significantly reduced. According to 87% of respondents in Loma districts, Lion, lesser Kudu, warthog, buffalo, bushbuck moved from upstream to downstream to the less ecological disturbance due to less human activity. On contrary, monkey and apes significantly increased and moved into human settlement areas. In Kindo Didaye, which is located downstream from the dam, respondents confirmed there is significant change in wildlife population especially following seasonal trends due to natural phenomenon and dam construction. During rainy season when green grass occupies the area, they resume their original place. Hoof print of buffalo and hippo, and dung of greater kudu as well as number of monkey observed during study period (Figure 4).
Other changes following Ghibe III dam construction
Participants in Loma (upstream) district agreed that veterinary service was better, and animal disease outbreaks and cattle deaths were reduced after dam construction compared to those who perceived that it was good right from the beginning (Table 6), on the contrary, participants from Kindo Didaye revealed no significant change in the perception on the above events despite better animal health services. Fishing practice started after dam construction in upstream where water reserve favored them to fishing.
Table 6. Event comparison before and after Ghibe III dam construction in both Loma (upstream) and Kindo Didaye(downstream) using median score.
Events
|
Upstream
|
Downstream
|
Before*
|
After*
|
Before*
|
After*
|
Satisfaction on animal health services
|
8(6-12)
|
22(18-24)
|
10(7-13)
|
20(17-23)
|
Occurrence of animal diseases outbreaks
|
18(16-24)
|
12(6-14)
|
14(8-16)
|
16(14-22)
|
Number of cattle deaths
Fishing
|
21(17-23)
0
|
9(7-13)
30
|
17(14-19)
0
|
13(11-16)
0
|
* Values= median score and ranges