Dog ownership was endorsed by 1,106 Veterans (39.2%) and denied by 1,955 Veterans (60.8%). Relative to non-dog owners, dog owners were younger (57.7 vs. 65.8 years, respectively, t(3053) = 14.6, p < 0.001), more likely to be female (51.5% vs. 37.9%, χ2(1) = 20.88, p < 0.001), and reported a greater number of potentially traumatic events (10.3 vs. 8.2, t(3053) = 6.82, p < 0.001). They were also more likely to screen positive for lifetime PTSD/MDD (30.0% vs. 18.9%, χ2(1) = 45.76, p < 0.001); AUD/DUD (45.8% vs. 41.7%, χ2(1) = 4.99, p = 0.025); and NUD (18.4% vs. 15.4%, χ2(1) = 4.52, p = 0.033), and reported more physical exercise (36.0 vs. 29.9, t(3053) = 4.98, p < 0.001). They did not differ with respect to BMI (29.4 vs. 29.1, t(3053) = 1.71, p = 0.087).
Insert Tables 1 and 2 and Figs. 1 and 2 about here.
Table 1
Prevalence of cardiovascular disease-relevant measures by dog ownership status
| No Dog Ownership N = 1,955 (60.8%) | Dog Ownership N = 1,106 (39.2%) | Test of Difference |
| N (weighted %) | N (weighted %) | |
Heart disease*** | 338 (14.4%) | 138 (9.5%) | 15.95, < 0.001 |
Heart attack | 155 (6.8%) | 83 (6.0%) | 0.87, = 0.35 |
Stroke | 94 (4.2%) | 46 (3.6%) | 0.58, = 0.44 |
Hypertension*** | 1,114 (54.4%) | 531 (41.5%) | 48.18, < 0.001 |
Diabetes** | 458 (20.8%) | 216 (16.0%) | 10.59, = 0.001 |
High cholesterol*** | 1,043 (49.1%) | 488 (38.6%) | 32.24, < 0.001 |
Note. Significant association: **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. |
Table 2. Results of logistic regression models examining association between dog ownership and cardiovascular disease-relevant measures
|
Heart Disease
|
Heart Attack
|
Stroke
|
Hypertension
|
Diabetes
|
High Cholesterol
|
Dog ownership
|
0.96 (0.74-1.24)
|
1.28 (0.92-1.79)
|
1.37 (0.90-2.07)
|
0.84* (0.71-0.99)
|
0.93 (0.75-1.16)
|
0.79** (0.67-0.93)
|
Age
|
1.06*** (1.05-1.07)
|
1.06*** (1.04-1.08)
|
1.04*** (1.02-1.06)
|
1.04*** (1.04-1.05)
|
1.04*** (1.03-1.05)
|
1.03*** (1.02-1.04)
|
Male gender
|
2.41* (1.13-5.15)
|
5.80* (1.30-25.83)
|
1.97 (0.64-6.02)
|
1.48* (1.09-2.00)
|
0.94 (0.62-1.43)
|
1.26 (0.93-1.70)
|
Traumas
|
1.02** (1.01-1.04)
|
1.03*** (1.02-1.05)
|
0.99 (0.97-1.02)
|
1.02** (1.01-1.03)
|
1.02*** (1.01-1.04)
|
1.02** (1.01-1.03)
|
Lifetime PTSD or MDD
|
1.04 (0.74-1.45)
|
1.32 (0.87-2.000
|
1.12 (0.66-1.91)
|
0.94 (0.76-1.16)
|
0.98 (0.75-1.29)
|
1.03 (0.84-1.27)
|
Lifetime AUD or DUD
|
0.86 (0.67-1.11)
|
0.85 (0.61-1.18)
|
1.29 0.85-1.95)
|
1.10 (0.93-1.31)
|
1.03 (0.84-1.27)
|
0.87 (0.73-1.03)
|
Lifetime NUD
|
1.90*** (1.43-2.53)
|
1.88** (1.31-2.70)
|
1.55 (0.98-2.46)
|
1.42** (1.14-1.77)
|
1.46** (1.14-1.88)
|
1.33* (1.07-1.64)
|
Exercise level
|
0.83* (0.70-0.99)
|
0.84 (0.67-1.05)
|
0.68* (0.49-0.96)
|
0.98 (0.90-1.06)
|
0.60*** (0.51-0.71)
|
0.87** (0.79-0.95)
|
Note. Significant association: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.
As shown in Table 1, the unadjusted prevalence of CVD-related conditions differed by dog ownership. Relative to non-dog owners, dog owners had a lower prevalence of heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, and high cholesterol. As shown in Table 2, after adjustment for all covariates, dog ownership was associated with significantly lower odds of hypertension (16% lower odds) and high cholesterol (21% lower odds). Several significant interactions were observed, with some suggesting that dog ownership was associated with risk reduction and others suggesting risk increases. Specifically, dog ownership and exercise level interacted constructively such that among Veterans with greater engagement in exercise, dog owners had lower probability of heart disease relative to non-dog owners (OR = 0.67, 95%CI = 0.45–0.98; Fig. 1). Among Veterans with high trauma load, dog owners had a significantly lower probability of hypertension than non-dog owners (OR = 0.97, 95%CI = 0.96–0.99; Fig. 2).
Significant age by dog ownership interactions were observed for diabetes (OR = 1.03, 95%CI = 1.01–1.04; Fig. 3) and for stroke (OR = 1.05, 1.01–1.08; Fig. 4), with dog ownership associated with lower probability of these diagnoses in young and middle-aged Veterans but greater probability in older Veterans. Finally, while dog ownership appeared protective against the endorsement of stroke in those without NUD, the opposite was observed in those with NUD (OR = 2.57, 95%CI = 1.02–6.23; See Fig. 5).
Insert Figs. 3–5 about here.