Conceptual and analytical diversity of environmental governance in Latin America: A systematic review

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1573427/v1

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Conceptual and analytical diversity of environmental governance in Latin America: A systematic review

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1573427/v1

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The analysis of environmental governance and the analytical frameworks used to study this concept in Latin America show that the term is diffuse and polysemic. The term governance refers to democratic societies that theoretically encourage the plural participation of actors in decision-making to solve public or collective socioenvironmental problems. However, in Latin America, there is a broad social perception of a democratic deficit that affects the socioenvironmental sphere. The objective of this work is to determine the main trends in studies on environmental governance in Latin America, the most commonly used analytical frameworks and the predominant approaches in order to characterize the scientific and political uses of the concept. A systematic literature review is carried out on databases in English and Spanish, and 140 articles that consider environmental governance using various analytical frameworks are analyzed. The main finding is the predominance of a critical perspective on the effectiveness of environmental governance, as well as the associated institutional components and social organizations, because the democratic practices that should support it are questionable.

Systematic review

Environmental governance

Analytical frameworks

Sustainability

Latin America

The concept of governance is a polysemic and diffuse construction that generically refers to various complex public and social problems, including environmental ones. This term, at least theoretically, refers to the plural participation in decision-making of social actors (individual and collective) directly and indirectly involved in the enjoyment, use, and management of natural resources and territories. Various academic communities in the social sciences (development studies, economics, geography, international relations, planning, political science, public administration, and sociology) use the term to conceptualize abstract analyses associated with coordination and social organization and find patterns of governance in corporate, public and global affairs (Bevir 2013) for the study and formulation of public policies (Porras 2019; Aguilar 2006). The study of governance includes laws, regulations, discursive debates, negotiations, mediation, conflict resolution, elections, public consultations, protests and other decision-making processes of a political nature (politics is understood here as everything concerning the polis, that is, the wide diversity of social relationships that occur in a specific context (Bobbio et al. 1983:960)). The polysemy of governance in its broadest sense crosses the concept of politics (the political, politics, policies) as well as regulation and management (Hufty 2016; Lange et al. 2013). As Lebel et al. (2006) noted, governance is not the exclusive competence of the state through the government but allows reflection on complex societies owing to the existence of a plurality of social subjects with duties and rights, capable of participating in the formulation and solution of common and public problems. Their participation includes generating, refuting and modifying diverse public policies and policy instruments.

This perspective allows us to recognize that public affairs are multidimensional and diverse, which is why they exceed the capacities of governments to solve them (Aguilar 2016; Zurbiggen 2011). This phenomenon ideally occurs in societies with democratic governments capable of adopting and promoting dialogue, consensus, empowerment, collaboration, coordination and plural participation (Aguilar 2006; Létourneau 2009; Bevir 2013; Hufty 2016; Aguilar 2016) to promote coresponsibility in solving social and common problems. The controversy generated by the concept of governance is associated with its instrumentalization by international financial organizations, such as the World Bank, when implanting "good governance"^[1] principles with a "transforming" purpose in global South societies (Aguilar 2006; Zurbiggen 2011; Hufty 2016). Bevir (2013) argues from a modernist perspective, linked to rational choice theories and new institutionalism, that current governance reflects two waves of public sector reforms that have spread throughout the world since the 1980s. Neoliberals promoted the first wave in favor of market policies and state thinning under the assumption that the efficient provision of public services could be encouraged by commodification and privatization. The second wave was initiated in the 1990s by institutionalists and social democrats who argued that neoliberalism, far from making the public sector more efficient, fragmented the state by creating networks as an alternative to hierarchies and markets. The difficulty in directing the shifting alliances associated with the provision of services previously provided by the bureaucratic state emerged as a new problem for the state.

In Latin America, behind good governance lies a neoliberal state model that coincides with the transition from authoritarian to democratic governments in several countries. These phenomena occurred in the 1980s after the growing social mobilizations against authoritarian and totalitarian regimes that began in the 1960s. There are different types of democracies and practices that produce varied sets of effects. De Sousa (2010) mentions that democracies can be participatory, representative and communal. For Schmitter and Karl (1991), democracy refers to respect for civic rights, that is, respect for the "rule of law" in the broadest sense of the term.

Latin America is the most unequal region in the world (CEPAL 2016), and as a result of the pandemic, great economic setbacks have accentuated poverty and inequity (Latinbarómetro 2021). The societies of the region generally express a chronically low level of dissatisfaction with democracy (Foa et al. 2020); for example, in 2018, this level reached 72% (Latinbarómetro 2021). At the same time, this region has the greatest biocultural and biodiversity wealth on Earth (Toledo et al. 2019). In such an unequal and exclusive world, it is difficult to exercise and promote governance conceived from a participatory, plural, inclusive and coordinated—in short, democratic—perspective. Hence, it is important to know whether these issues are questioned and how (part of) the scientific literature reports and studies the concept of environmental governance in Latin America. This study aims to investigate the basis of the analytical frameworks and approaches formulated from the objectives and results reported in studies that refer to the subject and have been published in both Anglo-Saxon and Latin American scientific databases. Through a systematic review of the literature, it analyses the main trends in studies on environmental governance in Latin America and the analytical frameworks and approaches most used, allowing us to characterize the concept from scientific and political points of view. Additionally, it addresses the main challenges of environmental governance in Latin America.

^[1] Good governance refers to transparency and effectiveness in three fundamental areas: 1) methods of election, control and replacement of rulers (institutional stability); 2) government capacity to manage resources and apply policies (regulatory framework and government effectiveness); and 3) respect for citizens (transparency, participation and guarantee of the rule of law) (World Bank 2005: 3-7 quoted in Zurbiggen 2011).

To carry out the systematic review of the scientific literature on environmental governance in Latin America and to analyze the main trends based on the analytical frameworks and approaches, the criteria described by Moher et al. (2009) for the Protocol of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) are used.

Four scientific databases are reviewed, all of which are recognized for high quality standards and leadership in the publication of multidisciplinary studies. The queries were performed in May and August 2021. Two of the databases, Elsevier Geobase and Clarivate Analytics Web of Science, list mainly articles in English. The search syntax was [environmental governance] and {framework} and [Latin America] in all fields (title, abstract, keywords). Scientific databases that publish articles in Spanish, including Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO) and the Hispanic American Periodicals Index (HAPI), were also consulted. The search syntax was [environmental governance] in all fields (title, abstract, keywords). The search pattern used in the Elsevier and Clarivate databases was not followed because the databases in Spanish are less sophisticated and precise, so when the sum of the terms {framework} and [latin america] was entered, there were zero results. However, it is essential to include information from Latin American databases because the journals and articles published in them are not reported in the English databases; they belong to different worlds^[2]. In all cases, only information from published journal articles and book chapters was systematized and analyzed.

Subsequently, an Excel database was created to integrate references from the four databases, and the matching and available fields were standardized for all cases. First, the fields from Geobase and Web of Science were homologated. Subsequently, the same procedure was applied to the HAPI and SciELO fields, and the English and Spanish references were later integrated into a single database. The information was ordered based on title and author(s) to verify that the articles were on the topic of interest and were not duplicated.

Once all the information was integrated, a second, more careful review of the complete references was performed, paying special attention to the abstract content. The process of inclusion/exclusion was executed, and the following diagram details the process of selecting the 140 articles that met the review criteria by explicitly referring to some type of environmental governance and the analytical frameworks used for it (see Diagram 1: Process of exclusion-inclusion).

After the titles and abstracts were carefully reviewed, new fields were added to the database to systematize relevant information on the methodologies used; explicitly stated definition(s) of governance; analytical and theoretical frameworks used; topics referred to; references to geographic areas and countries of Latin America; and objectives and main results reported in the studies. Generally, an important variety of frameworks used, definitions of governance, methods and topics analyzed was found (see Table 1: Variables and contents).

Table 1: Variables and contents

N	VARIABLES	CONTENTS
1	Analytical frameworks	Analysis of environmental and development public policies; Good living; Conflicts linked to the use, management and distribution of natural resources; Ecological democracy; Political ecology; Socioenvironmental evaluation; Management of natural resources, ecosystems and territories; Community management of ecosystems and territories; Environmental governance as plural participation mechanism; Justice and environmental rights; Legal and institutional frameworks for sustainable management of resources and ecosystems; Institutional frameworks for ecosystem management (SES-Ostrom); Socioecological systems, sustainable development and sustainability; others (multiple stakeholders, interdisciplinary approaches, integration of various frameworks, theory state formation, decision-making, new public management)
2	Governance types	Governance of specific ecosystems; Environmental governance; Environmental community governance; Governance on specific topics; Multilevel governance; International governance; Institutional governance; Collaborative governance; Good governance; Participatory governance; Governance for sustainability; Territorial governance; Regional sustainable governance; Local governance; Complex governance; Decentralized environmental governance; Regional governance; Multiactor governance; Market governance; Bottom-up governance; Counter-neoliberal ecosystem governance; Urban environmental governance Combination of various types of governance
3	Themes	Ecosystems: Coastal, marine and fishing; Forest; Water; Volcanoes Sectors: Agriculture; Energy; Ecotourism and Tourism; Mining Systems: Sustainable economic and commercial; Socioecological; urban Topics: Climate change; Conservation; Pollution; Disasters and risks
4	Scales	Regional and national (case studies)
5	Temporality	Year of publication
6	Methodologies	Discourse analysis; Scenario analysis; Public policy analysis; Documentary analysis; Spatial analysis and GIS; Application of analytical framework; Key informant interviews; Comparative study; Case study; Systematic review; Ethnography; Measurement and evaluation (generation of indices and indicators); Participatory methods; Fieldwork
6	Objectives	The objectives reported in the summaries were systematized	Approaches
7	Results	The results reported in the abstracts were systematized	Approaches

From the review of the objectives and results reported in the abstracts, the articles were coded based on coincident information called Approaches, the meanings of which are explained below. In total, there are seven approaches (see Table 2: Approaches and their meanings).

Table 2: Approaches and their meanings

N	CODE	MEANING
1	Critical analysis	Linked to decision-making, actions, mechanisms, strategies and governance structures that do not always or necessarily contribute to environmental justice or a transition toward sustainability
2	Methodological proposals	The creation, application, improvement or transformation of methodological proposals to improve the operation of current environmental governance
3	Criteria identification	Strategies, actions and forms of effective or ineffective operation of environmental governance
4	Recommendations to modify public policies	Related to environmental governance and sustainability (may include legal frameworks)
5	Proposal construction	Related to local governance mechanisms, instruments and strategies to achieve sustainability that also seek to avoid power asymmetries
6	Expressions of collective action	The social mobilization and participation of minorities, including gender issues, to achieve in-depth transformations at the socioenvironmental level and in the dominant development models that affect socioecosystems.
7	Future scenario prediction	Environmental governance based on current development schemes

Once the new fields were entered into the database and coded, descriptive quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out, and the data were segmented from the analytical frameworks explicitly reported in the studies. Dynamic tables were created in Excel for each variable described in Table 1 to depict the major trends present in the studies. Subsequently, the information was analyzed qualitatively and the most important trends were considered. The objectives and results of the studies were contrasted, which allowed the information to be systematized and codified into the seven approaches described above. Only the cases that reported information by relating two different variables were considered in the analysis; hence, the total number varies according to the variables and their relationships (see Annex 1: Summary Table).

Theoretical framework

Theoretical frameworks are the corpus of concepts that refer to different levels of articulated abstractions and guide the way in which reality is apprehended and processes and phenomena are explained (Sautu et al. 2006). A theory predicts the behavior of certain elements, actors or objects; in the case of environmental governance, it is a conceptual framework that provides insight into what is desirable for societies and ecosystems (Létourneau 2009). The conceptual framework implies a vision of society, the place that people occupy in it and the characteristics assumed by relationships between the whole and the parts (Sautu et al. 2006). Theory encompasses a wide range of ideas, concepts, formulations and statements that support a wide variety of methodological procedures designed to respond to specific research objectives (deduced and supported from a theory) and are also useful in obtaining empirical evidence (Sautu et al. 2006).

Theories, objectives and problems raised in and among disciplines allow various methodological responses with specific epistemological foundations to be formulated (Sautu et al. 2006). In the study of environmental governance, whatever the role of explicit theories, the understanding of governance and its linkage with the environment will have effects on concrete decision-making processes and on the understanding of social life and different collective action forms, organizations and social relations generated around socioenvironmental issues (Létourneau 2006). Part of the governance literature discusses laws, rules, and norms that coordinate people's actions in ways that give rise to formal and informal organizations. Another considers the changing nature of politics, that is, the consequences for organizational and public actions manifested through the management of natural resources or nature and the emergence of markets and networks as alternatives to bureaucratic and hierarchical governance. New politics is extraordinarily diverse partly because people draw on different traditions to interpret and resist these narratives and knowledge (Bevir 2013).

Environmental governance and the analytical frameworks used in Latin America highlight a set of practices associated with the formulation of formal and informal norms and legal institutional frameworks. Various social organizations form at multiple scales and levels, including specific experiences of cooperation and dialogue that ideally refer to sustainability as well as conflicts and ruptures associated with social and ecosystem degradation caused by the decision-making and implementation of “development” policies that are socially and ecologically predatory. Like many other social sciences concepts, sustainability and governance are terms under construction, so they can become ambiguous and diffuse as they undergo the maturation process (Kemp et al. 2005). For example, sustainability is, at its root, a hybrid term that links normative bases (intra- and intergenerational justice) with systemic foundations (mechanisms of human-nature interaction or processes in socioecological systems). Social deliberation and negotiation also belong to sustainable development, as do social and environmental justice (Burger and Christen 2011).

Some issues are usually associated with environmental governance because they are either present or absent in decision-making processes related to socioecosystems. Examples are the existence or absence of transparency mechanisms (Libert and Trench 2016; Dulal et al. 2012, Schweizer et al. 2021), accountability (Bredariol and D’Avignon 2018; Roncagliolo 2013; Eakin et al. 2011; Pieck 2013), participation mechanisms (Lehmann et al., 2015; Ratner et al. 2017; Zinsstag et al. 2016), interactions and relationships with different agents (Bredariol and D’Avignon 2018; Doria et al. 2020; Mathez-Stiefel et al. 2017; Fürst et al. 2014), coordination (Esquivel et al. 2014; Izquierdo-Tort 2020; Bezerra et al. 2021; Chan et al. 2018), cooperation (Franchini et al. 2017; Kuzdas et al. 2014; Sattler et al., 2016), rule of law (Contreras-Hermosilla 2011), decentralization (Libert and Trench 2016; Zinsstag et al. 2016; Juteau-Martineau et al. 2014; Roncagliolo 2013), profit sharing (Evans et al. 2014; Childs 2014; Taylor 2005), legitimacy (Libert and Trench 2016; Brenner and Vargas 2010), environmental citizenship and respect for rights (Dulal et al. 2012; Pieck 2013; Duarte-Abadia et al. 2015; Graziano et al. 2015; Burrier 2016), leadership (Kuzdas et al. 2014; Kuzdas et al. 2016; Coleman and Mwangi 2014; London et al. 2017), collective or common goals or objectives (Kuzdas et al. 2014; Bezerra et al. 2021), environmental justice (De Marchi et al. 2017; Grasa 2020; Stoltenborg and Boelens 2016), context relevance and the impossibility of transferring solutions to other, similarly complex problems (Sattler et al. 2016).

Trends in environmental governance studies and the analytical frameworks they use for analyses in Latin America indicate that although the issues listed above are important, they do not work as theory supposes or as they would in the democratic societies in which the governance concept originates and develops, as well as the accompanying political and public actions.

^[2] The information reported in databases with the greatest impact, fundamentally meaning English research publications, tends to differ from that reported in Latin American and Ibero-American databases since the relevance and impact are greater in the former for several reasons. The comparative systematization of information in English vs. Spanish scientific databases requires significant technical work to match formats and search terms; databases (such as Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and Elsevier) tend to have more precise and powerful search engines (which include multiple fields and the possibility of carrying out rapid graphical analysis regardless of whether the supporting documents are accessible), and it is possible to connect and relate information among companies; and generally, the articles are not available for public consultation unless the authors have paid for open access. In contrast, search engines in Latin America and Ibero-America (such as Redalyc, SciELO, and HAPI) are less precise, but they do allow full consultation and access to scientific articles.

1. Descriptive analysis of trends in studies on environmental governance in Latin America

The 94 studies use various analytical frameworks linked to the understanding of socioecological systems, sustainable development and sustainability (18); environmental governance as a mechanism for plural participation (13); legal and institutional frameworks for the sustainable management of natural resources and ecosystems (11); natural resources, ecosystems and territory management (9); others (referring to multiple stakeholders, interdisciplinary approaches, integration of various frameworks, theory state formation, decision-making, and new public management) (7); justice and environmental rights (7); environmental and development public policies (7); institutional frameworks for ecosystem management (SES-Ostrom) (6); community management of ecosystems and territories (5); political ecology (4); ecological democracy (2); conflicts linked to the use, management and distribution of natural resources (2); good living (2); and socioenvironmental evaluation (1). In many cases, information about the analytical frameworks used is not included in the abstract (46) (Figure 1: Analytical Frameworks).

The polysemy of the term environmental governance is shown by the 23 explicit references found in the reviewed socioenvironmental studies (see Annex 1: Summary Table).

The most commonly used types of governance are the governance of specific ecosystems (16 cases, including analyses of ecosystems in general as well as water and forest ecosystems, etc.); a combination of 2 or 3 different types of governance (11); environmental governance (8); community governance (7); governance on specific issues (6 in total, associated with climate change, conservation, risks, health, the use of plastics and energy issues); international and multilevel governance (6 each); good governance, collaborative governance and institutional governance (4 each); participatory and prosustainability governance (3 cases each); complex, territorial, regionally sustainable, local and environmental decentralized governance (2 each); and regional, multistakeholder, market, bottom-up, counter-neoliberal ecosystems and urban environmental governance (1 each) (Figure 2: Governance Types).

Regarding the themes (ecosystems, systems, sectors and topics), the most studied ecosystems are the water ones (28), followed by the topic of conservation (23), forest ecosystems (20), climate change (10), the agricultural sector (8), the energy sector (8), coastal, marine and fishing ecosystems (7), others (7, such as land tenure, territorial planning and zoning, human and environmental health, human development, environment and global environmental policy, alternative paradigms development); the mining sector (5), sustainable economic and commercial systems (4), ecotourism and tourism sector (4), urban systems (3), socioecological systems (3), pollution (2), volcanoes (1) and disasters and risks (1). (Figure 3: Themes (ecosystems, systems, sectors and topics)

The studies report information on different geographic scales, for example, at the regional level for Latin America (43 cases) and Latin America and the Caribbean (5) as well as other regions: Asia (20), Africa (19), Europe (14) and North America (2) (Figure 4: Regions Reported).

They analyze cases in 20 Latin American countries. The most studied countries are Mexico (27), Brazil (25), Colombia (13), Peru (9), Ecuador (9), Chile (8), Costa Rica (7), Argentina (7), Bolivia (4), Uruguay (3), Guatemala (3), the Dominican Republic (2), Nicaragua (2), Honduras (2), Saint Lucia (1), Puerto Rico (1), Panama (1), El Salvador (1), Cuba (1), and the Netherlands Antilles (1). (Figure 5: Number of cases reported in Latin American Countries)

Regarding the timing of studies on environmental governance and analytical frameworks, the first publication appeared in 1995. From 2010 to 2021, there was a sustained increase in the number of publications, with 2018 having the highest number of articles (17) (see Annex 1: Summary Table).

Studies generally use combined methods, the most common being documentary analysis (44), case studies (29), interviews with key informants (27), discourse analysis (19), measurement and evaluation (19), comparative studies (11), fieldwork (12), public policy analysis (9), participatory methods (4), spatial and GIS analysis (2), application of analytical frameworks (8), scenario analysis (4), ethnography (3), and systematic reviews (2) (Figure 6: Methodology).

Regarding the approach, in most cases, a critical analysis is made (28), methodological proposals are developed (26), criteria for determining the effectiveness of governance are identified (24), public policy recommendations are made (18), proposals to improve different forms of governance are analyzed (17), various expressions of collective action are studied (15) and, to a lesser extent, scenarios are predicted (4) (Figure 7: Approach).

2. Trends in environmental governance studies according to the approach

There are different approaches to the use of the term environmental governance as a conceptual and/or analytical framework, as is evidenced by the qualitative analysis of information reported in the abstracts and by the relationship between the objectives and reported results. The order that the analysis follows corresponds to the hierarchical place of the approach based on the sum of the cases found (for further reference, see Annex 1) (Figure 8: Analytical Frameworks and Different Approaches).

2.1. Critical analysis

From the critical analysis approach linked to decision-making, actions, generation of mechanisms, strategies and governance structures, the studies indicate that some legal instruments (international and local, such as management programs) do not recognize or contribute to the formation of environmental subjects. Similarly, regulatory frameworks tend to marginalize or not include the ecological knowledge of local groups because they favor market interests (Di Giminiani 2016; Sindico and Hawkins 2015; Aalto 2016; Watts and Depledge 2018) and economic valuation without taking into account environmental or social demands (Ioris 2009). The authors highlight the persistent failure of some international governance frameworks to solve issues that contribute to the continuous and widespread destruction of the environment and ecosystem services (Raftopoulos and Morley 2020; Laterra et al. 2019). This failure affects local managers, who act as bridges between government agencies and local communities, as they face the institutional dilemmas of multilevel and multiscale governance expressed in paradoxes of legalism and social emancipation (Prado et al. 2020).

Regarding political ecology, the effects of neoliberal policies adopted in different countries and sectors of Latin America are analyzed: those that threaten common values and various socially legitimized community and collective processes, taking advantage of lax environmental legislation as well as the state’s participation in weakening resistance and demobilizing social activism against megaprojects and extractivist “development” projects (Rojas 2020; Andreucci and Radhuber 2017; Duarte-Abadia et al. 2015; Renfrew 2011).

From the postneoliberal and postdevelopment perspectives, the studies propose using new tools to analyze and better understand socioenvironmental conflicts in highly conflictive scenarios (Córdoba et al. 2018; Grasa 2020). They also report that in some countries, new environmental governance measures have been imposed; although they have had positive social and environmental results, contradictions and uncertainties persist that affect socioecosystems negatively (Schmink et al. 2019). From the perspective of the management of natural resources, ecosystems and territories, authors argue that it is not enough to identify key actors in socioecosystems since there are important gaps in institutional networks that inhibit the transmission of information between scales and sectors (Vignola et al. 2019). The poor services infrastructure and lack of coordination between key sectors also limit individual agency (Harris and Carter 2019).

From a critical analytical perspective, for some authors, environmental governance as a plural participation mechanism is a seemingly empty concept since studies on megaprojects show that although this idea is supposedly adopted to increase public participation and promote ecological sustainability, in the real world, it is a simulation (Pieck 2013). In some cases, the parties involved demanded participation in the design and execution of policy interventions in spaces that need them in order to incorporate their needs and experiences to improve governance and thus avoid maldevelopment (Russo et al. 2021; Selfa et al. 2015).

2.2. Methodological proposals

Regarding the creation, application, improvement or transformation of methodological proposals that improve the operability of environmental governance and the coupling of social and natural analytical frameworks, authors develop proposals to explain the challenges faced by societies in moving toward sustainability and achieving adequate environmental governance in various socioecosystems. They highlight aspects such as considering local communities and contexts in addition to revealing the potential existence of governance patterns. Many of these methodological proposals are formulated to assist in monitoring and influencing decision-making (Schaller et al. 2016; Vollmer et al. 2021), generating operational theoretical frameworks that link activities and achievements, and identifying useful learning for others (Olsen 2002; Sherman 2014). The aim is to help rigid and centralized governance models transition to adaptive and resilient models that can be modified over time (Sánchez et al. 2018; Galvis et al. 2018; Coates 2021) and to establish internal governance initiatives that manage the various interests and levels of influence of the parties involved (Taylor 2005). Among the methodological frameworks applied are the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) (Monteiro et al. 2018), Participatory Water Monitoring (Pareja et al. 2018), the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) and Systems Approach Framework (SAF) approaches (Semeoshenkova et al. 2017), the Social Multi-criteria Evaluation (SMCE) (Walter et al. 2016), the field environmental philosophy applied to the ethics and ecology of educational and governance processes (FILAC) (Rozzi et al., 2014); the Human Scale Development (HSDA) analytical framework for achieving Transformative Science (TSc) (Spiering et al. 2021); and analytical frameworks on ecological democracy (Mitchell 2006).

Other methodological proposals focus on the management of natural resources, ecosystems and territories to analyze a set of indicators related to the drivers of change and apply the results to specific adaptive management regimes (e.g., to reduce pollution) (Sherman 2014). Interpretations of the three pillars of sustainable development (social, economic and environmental) beyond European contexts are also investigated, and the differences and strategic imperatives of countries in the global South are noted (Fritsch et al. 2020). In other cases, advances in the management of specific natural resources are discussed, and conceptual, methodological and practical challenges for scientists and decision-makers are identified (Botero et al. 2015).

Studies referring to methodological proposals seek to provide references for public policies and different social sectors, pointing out that it is important for operational frameworks to link different activities and achievements using evaluation methods that facilitate the identification of learning in each project and the elements that should be incorporated throughout the process (Olsen 2002).

Frameworks are used to compare social benefit sharing against conventional market institutions to understand how internal governance manages the diverse interests and influences of stakeholders (Taylor 2005). Conceptual models of community comanagement are also addressed with a territorial and functional approach incorporating different levels of governance (community/local, regional and national) with functions articulated in nested spaces that guarantee access to strategic resources in rural communities (Bernal et al. al. 2014). Other studies confirm the relevance of institutional context in integrating multilevel governance and various forms of participation (Schaller et al. 2016; Lebel et al. 2013). In addition, governance proposals are prepared within the frame of these challenges, threats and current environmental planning instruments (Manriquez et al. 2019).

Methodological proposals conceiving of environmental governance as a plural participation mechanism highlight the need to develop new approaches that include the findings of research from different disciplines (McDonnell 2008) to facilitate the transition from a traditional to an adaptive governance model (Sánchez et al. 2018; Coates 2021).

2.3. Criteria identification

Regarding the identification of criteria, strategies, actions and effective or ineffective forms of environmental governance, analyses of legal and institutional frameworks for sustainable ecosystem management highlight the need to identify criteria that reveal the role of legal and institutional reforms in achieving collaborative or territorial governance, as well as their legitimacy, in addition to determining the contextual conditions favoring the achievement of effective governance^[3] (Cisneros 2019; Cistulli et al. 2014; Fernández-Maldonado 2019; Bradshaw 2017; Krause and Nielsen 2014; Monterroso and Barry 2012). Other studies recognize fragile or unclear governance in cases where institutional arrangements are weak, both within and between countries, which contributes to ecosystem vulnerability to imminent threats (Doria et al. 2020).

Regarding community management of ecosystems and territories, criteria are identified to determine the influence of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) on the resilience of socioecosystems and decision-making in facing important threats. Studies conclude that socioecological systems with a long tradition of community management, that is, that have established common agreements at the local level, seem to be more resilient to environmental challenges, while communities with internal governance problems have limited capacities to deal with external disturbances (such as global drivers of change or national policies) (Delgado-Serrano et al. 2018). Evidence shows that it is more effective to generate rules in a participatory manner and monitor compliance at the local level, making it possible to generate and maintain community governance (Epstein 2017). Other authors show that governance for community management faces challenges regarding the decentralization of specific actions (such as conservation) since it depends on how and why local actors become involved in regional strategies (Pinel et al. 2018).

The usefulness of multilevel governance in solving conflicts over natural resources between different actors (state, market and communities) at different levels is also discussed (Sattler et al. 2016). Local knowledge and interest in community management (particularly in forestry) produce better social and environmental results than governance at other levels. However, the implementation of these practices may be inconsistent over time, mainly because of a dynamic political environment or variations in government support of resource management policies (London et al., 2017). Criteria called internal variables associated with socioecological systems, sustainable development and sustainability (that is, community governance systems related to ancestral knowledge, history of land use and resources) are identified (Delgado-Serrano et al. 2015), as are external variables (linked to analyses of environmental public policies; environmental agreements and international organizations, governmental policies and public attitudes favoring and/or affecting socioecosystems; the use of regulations and market instruments and the security of individual and collective property rights; the adoption of green protocols and social and environmental responsibility policies translated into financial products, etc.) (Flores 1999; Swallow et al. 2010; Mejia-Escobar et al. 2020). Other studies point out technical and financial capacities as key attributes of governance; institutional memory, learning and knowledge; and participation and accountability and mention that these elements have been eroded by new public management reforms (Eakin et al. 2011; Lostarnau et al. 2011). The relevance of identifying criteria that are not fulfilled and their influence on the construction of ineffective environmental governance are also discussed (Morales-Giner et al. 2021).

2.4. Public policy recommendations

Another relevant aspect of environmental governance studies is their linkage with public policy recommendations (for creating and modifying policies and institutional frameworks) for achieving sustainability. In terms of socioecological systems, sustainable development and sustainability, in many cases, institutional frameworks do not consider the uncertainty and nonlinearity of socioecosystems, the existence of conceptual contradictions in policies and the lack of integration of scientific knowledge into legal frameworks (Martínez et al. 2012). It is recommended that participatory public policies be implemented, but previously, it was essential to achieve adequate centralized management of socioecosystems (Salinas-Rojas and Roussel 2011); undertake actions that favor opportune and effective implementation of international institutional frameworks, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), that cover various relevant topics (e.g., health and environment) (Buss et al. 2016); and foster trust relations with government organizations to support the implementation of collaborative actions between actors (Urcuqui-Bustamante et al. 2021).

Likewise, the link between the management of natural resources, ecosystems and territories and public policies is key, although in the studies use very different frameworks, including neoinstitutionalism, new public management, the Anthropocene and political ecology. For example, some studies argue that management practices for sustainability can be adopted only when good governance supported by financial incentives for the effective application of management rules exists (Nasi et al. 2011). However, if institutional frameworks are emphasized, they highlight generating mechanisms that favor permanence of personnel in public administration and formulate strategic governance systems (Bredariol and D'Avignon 2018).

The authors emphasize that it is essential to grant property titles to indigenous peoples and local communities (Gunter and Ceddia 2020). Recent changes in some policy frameworks emphasize the generation of incentives for integrated forest management and the simplification of regulations (Pacheco et al. 2016); other authors propose carrying out internal political reforms that allow local capacity building (for example, in forest conservation) (Jodoin 2017). Regarding the struggle against illegality, some studies mention that it is a priority to generate local benefits from production systems adapted to local communities’ needs (e.g., certification) (McDermott et al. 2015). Other analyses show that public policies can interact positively at different levels as participants combine resources to pursue individual and collective socioeconomic strategies, generating synergies between implementation processes and improvement processes in program design (Izquierdo-Tort 2020). Additionally, some areas have been specified in which governmental and nongovernmental organizations can support local producers in decisions to achieve sustainable productive diversification (Schroth and Ruf 2014).

Some authors consider it necessary to radically modify the institutional structure of international environmental cooperation that allows short-termism to end, especially among economic and political powers (Franchini et al. 2017). It is essential to integrate the human rights approach into environmental impact assessments in order to protect the environment and the fundamental rights of indigenous peoples (Pereira 2021).

2.5. Proposal construction

Proposal construction related to mechanisms, instruments and strategies of local governance for sustainability refers to taking into account socioenvironmental specificities at different scales, which implies going beyond the limits theoretically proposed by sustainability, sustainable development and socioecological systems (Montoya et al. 2006; Zinsstag et al. 2016; Kuzdas et al. 2014; Roldan et al. 2019; Desmaison et al. 2018). The authors mention a tendency in the scientific field to analyze governance segmentally; thus, it is necessary to generate lasting institutional instruments that encourage the real participation of the sectors involved to generate integrated and collaborative governance (Roldan et al. 2019; Kuzdas et al. 2014; Mathez-Stiefel et al. 2017; Eakin and Wehbe 2009; Challenger et al. 2018). Regarding natural resource, ecosystem and territory management, studies consider it necessary to recognize and validate local knowledge systems and create networks to understand social and natural landscapes (Romero et al. 2012) as well as to promote more studies about the socioecosystems of the global South with a sustainable development approach (De Macedo et al. 2021).

Regarding environmental governance as a mechanism of plural participation, research finds that it can help to encourage the implementation of actions that aim at the sustainable use of strategic resources as long as governmental and nongovernmental actors (including private companies, government, and civil society organizations) actively participate. Generating interinstitutional coordination mechanisms with a clear regulatory framework that favors plural interactions and the formulation of regulatory frameworks to stimulate the design, evaluation and modification of public policies can also be helpful (Esquivel et al. 2014; Cassio and Sánchez 2018). For other authors, environmental governance has aims to identify actors in the political arena without considering their position in the capitalist accumulation framework (Renfrew 2011).

Regarding legal and institutional environmental frameworks, a study highlights that weak implementation capacities, insufficient financing, sectoral and social conflicts, and lack of transparency are key obstacles to the implementation of policies and the functioning of governance mechanisms in the region (in forest landscape restoration) (Schweizer et al. 2021).

2.6. Expressions of collective action

The approach of environmental governance as an expression of collective action refers to how social mobilization contributes to the construction of organizations and social movements favoring cooperation and the construction of alternative decision-making systems (Barkin and Lemus, 2014); multiscalar organizations and movements that advocate for the governance of common property resources (Vos et al. 2020); and cases of strong critiques being made because consultation or participation guidelines for local stakeholders are lacking, favoring solely the participation of private entities in governance processes, so that the concept of collective action becomes only rhetorical (Benites-Lazaro and Mello-Thery 2019).

Regarding collective action related to institutional frameworks for socioecosystem management, London et al. (2017) consider the common historical and cultural roots, the presence of leadership, local knowledge, economic dependence on resources and the threat of these to the socioecosystem to generate incentives for collective action and recognize that internal conflicts are the main barrier to community management. Others foreground the need for partnerships between multiple actors at various scales to promote social and environmental justice solutions that recognize the rights of communities to land and water (Stoltenborg and Boelens 2016). One study suggests considering sociopolitical actors associated with the market and mass media as social subjects, since they participate in conflicts and existing forms of governance (Lirios et al. 2015). Other authors affirm that Ostrom’s principles of institutional design (1993) have been useful in explaining how, through organization and community collective action, it has been possible to build governance from the bottom up even though changes in governance have traditionally occurred from the top down (Sattler et al., 2015). Schröter et al. (2014) consider that community natural resource management requires a society with a certain level of self-organization, empowerment in decision-making processes, and interactions with external agents considered reliable by it, with which it can perhaps create effective win-win management scenarios. Likewise, Delgado-Serrano (2017) finds that community activities are not the main cause of natural resource degradation and recognizes that communities face important internal challenges (such as lack of capacities, rigid rules, and noninclusive community management) as well as external challenges (such as lack of economic incentives and compensation models that generate welfare opportunities associated with sustainable management).

Currently, gender diversity and gender studies heed the participation of women in decision-making bodies, especially in traditional societies, where more women occupy positions or leadership (Coleman and Mwangi 2013), and their participation is recognized as necessary to achieve solid and resilient socioecological systems management (Delgado-Serrano and Escalante 2018).

Some studies indicate that institutions associated with natural resource management can contribute to the emergence of conflicts or cooperative actions. Hence, they recommend that policies include resource ownership and conflict resolution mechanisms and recognize social inequalities, facilitate strategies for strengthening collective action and promote equitable participation in dialogue and negotiation for access to and use of resources by marginalized groups (Ratner et al. 2017).

2.7. Future scenario prediction

Regarding scenario prediction in the framework of environmental governance, few studies take this approach, although human and nature rights, sustainability and climate change in particular may force us to reflect on the subject. Studies that explicitly address scenarios conceive that future problems are unlikely to be effectively addressed in certain ecosystems (e.g., coastal and insular areas) despite numerous management plans and development policy initiatives (Debrot and Sybesma 2000). On the other hand, authors consider that to achieve sustainability, a legal-political approach must be taken to facilitate regional integration in strategic sectors (such as energy); they emphasize that new scenarios must include fifth-generation human rights (such as energy security and the human rights to water and a healthy environment, among others) (Balderrama et al. 2019; Wilder et al. 2020). In communities, policies and strategies for future adaptation to climate change remain limited, which is why authors call for support for local livelihoods (Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015) and encourage commitments to developing and adopting sustainable clean and innovative technologies (both in society and in business sectors) to prevent pollution, among other problems (Pérez-Pineda et al 2017).

3. Main challenges of environmental governance in Latin America

The reviewed literature on environmental governance alludes to various limitations related to the democratic deficit and practices that are generally reproduced by Latin American societies. Schmitter and Karl (1991) recognize that notions of the economic freedom of neoliberal models are not synonymous with political freedom and can even hinder it. They state that in democratic terms, the emergence of political institutions that can compete peacefully to form governments and influence public policies is desirable in order to canalize social and economic conflicts through regular procedures that are sufficient and adequately linked with civil society. In this way, authorities will commit to carrying out courses of action in favor of the public and collective interests.

However, "democracies" in the countries of the region have not been able to fulfill that promise, in part due to difficult transitions from authoritarian governments and the interference and influence of de facto powers that have historically impeded democratic processes and practices from becoming common and constant. The emergence and survival of democracy depend on social preconditions such as the wide distribution of participatory resources and the existence of a trusting and tolerant public that values freedom of choice. Ideally, these elements should permeate the being and must be of environmental governance. However, in Latin America, some of the most important phenomena that hinder the concretion of the meaning of governance are associated with the fact that powerful social actors at the local level and national governments contribute to the reproduction of clientelistic and centralist authoritarian models in which the trafficking of influence prevails (Libert and Trench 2016; Cruz-García et al. 2016). Likewise, the imposition of participation frameworks from above or from the government persists (Brenner and Vargas 2010). Slowness or the deliberate transgression of efforts that contribute to establishing participatory governance processes, as well as new arrangements to face environmental challenges that are dependent on specific political and financial situations at the local and international levels, are also important issues (Libert and Trench, 2016).

One of the key issues for environmental governance in various countries and sectors of government public administration is that there are no guidelines to encourage the participation of stakeholders at the local level, and when such guidelines do exist, they are vague and/or unfulfilled, a situation that is used by private companies to dominate and control consultation processes (Benites-Lazaro et al. 2019). There is a persistent lack of participation of local communities in discussions and deliberations about the potential benefits and effects of projects that are carried out in their territories and an absence of effective participatory mechanisms for decision-making (Benites-Lazaro et al. 2019; Kusters et al. 2020).

At the international level, authors point out the persistent failure of international governance frameworks to address and provide solutions to the widespread destruction of nature, which has even been linked to phenomena such as cultural genocide and ecocide (Raftopoulos and Morley 2020). Although gender issues are addressed in only a few studies, it is essential to encourage studies about women's participation in decision-making processes and their potential contribution to antipatriarchal, postcapitalist and postneoliberal environmental governance.

^[3] According to some authors, among the necessary conditions for governance are access to information and the capacities of actors, organizations and institutions at different levels (Cistulli et al., 2014); recognition of the rights of local people and communities (Graziano et al. 2015); and the need to foster trust in governance regimes, mainly among indigenous populations (Evans et al. 2014). For example, territorial governance is subject to the limited interest and capacity of the state to plan, manage and guide spatial development, so it is essential to review the institutional frameworks associated with planning systems, the approach and the types of governance that are promoted (Fernández-Maldonado 2019).

In academic terms, the environmental governance studies reviewed clearly exemplify the polysemy and vagueness of the concept (Hufty 2016; Lange et al. 2013; Létourneau 2009; Porras 2019) and demonstrate the ontological and epistemological diversity that permeates the analytical frameworks used and different visions present in the study of this topic in Latin America. Likewise, they evidence a conceptual multidimensionality that combines institutional and normative, organizational and collective action, scientific and local knowledge, social and public action, and forms and structures of government on various scales (global, national, regional, local, community, corporate, etc.) Despite this complex diversity of ideas and results, we find some coincidences that allow us to characterize the use and meaning of environmental governance in the region as a concept that refers to transformations and change in the broadest sense of the word when trying to understand ways of interaction between state and society that go beyond hierarchical relationships. Theoretically, the purpose of governance is to solve socioenvironmental problems in a coordinated and joint manner, making society part of the solution. However, this implies disputing and questioning the status quo and the hegemonic frameworks that structure the forms of unequal and unfair social interaction that perpetuate the subordination of the most vulnerable or those whose rights are not recognized.

The use of the governance concept also shows a process of experimentation and scientific creativity to integrate and apply analytical frameworks, especially of a multidisciplinary nature, followed by interdisciplinary and, to a lesser extent, transdisciplinary frameworks. Through the systematic review, it is possible to conclude that there is a convergence of social sciences disciplines (sociology, economics, political science, public administration, legal sciences, anthropology, international relations, and geography, among others) with natural and environmental sciences (biology, ecology, environmental engineering, forest engineering, hydrology, geology, sustainability, etc.). Hence, the largest number of studies refer to the analysis of specific ecosystems and their links with the ways in which societies (states or groups) organize themselves to manage them at different scales and levels. The formulation and application of legal and institutional frameworks is a key issue; various regulatory instruments and public policies seek to achieve the objectives that theoretically must be defined through the participation of all parties involved to accomplish the sustainable management of ecosystems.

However, some authors mention that knowledge is usually fragmented (Kuzdas and Wieck 2014; Balanzo et al. 2020; Ortíz et al. 2020); therefore, they point out that it is important to adopt an integrated vision through incorporating different frameworks to describe and analyze what happens in socioenvironmental reality using various methods, such as critical reflection, literature review, empirical work and direct dialogue with social actors (Roldan et al. 2019; Lebel et al. 2013; Kusters et al. 2020).

Likewise, the field of environmental governance invites us to explore the combination of analytical frameworks in addition to incorporating and experimenting with different variable and indicator combinations that favor the operability of the concept. Such investigations allow researchers to determine relevant aspects, typologies, classifications or other methods that contribute to useful generalizations for analysis in academic terms and for application in public policies. The expectation is that the operability of the concept helps identify the elements that make it inoperable and ineffective and, above all, prevent socioenvironmental problems from being solved. Operability has academic utility, but it is also key for the elaboration, re-elaboration, modification, evaluation or prescription of public policies, programs, strategies and any other element for which it is necessary to know the efficiency of societal and environmental interactions (Taylor 2005; Eakin and Wehbe 2009; Lebel et al. 2013; Álvarez-Coque et al. 2020). However, the instrumentalization of the concept has aroused critiques since it has been used to measure "efficacy" rather than to build mechanisms and strategies that help formulate and achieve common goals to solve complex social and socioenvironmental problems (Eakin et al. 2011; Barkin and Fuente 2013). Instrumentalization can be seen as a virtue for some public policies, especially those that oversimplify the contexts in which they are inscribed, as is the case of the structural adjustment policies implemented in several Latin American countries (Zurbriggen 2011). Other visions indicate that it is necessary to incorporate an integral vision (integrality), that is, to observe the specificities and particularities of the social, political, ecological and economic contexts among other aspects that permeate the socioenvironmental realities.

Regarding the political use of the concept, it refers to state-society relations, but unlike approaches that configure governance as an exclusive directive action of the government, governance makes it possible to recognize society-society relationships that are built with the aim of undertaking actions and solving socioenvironmental problems that arise in groups on different scales. Understanding these interactions beyond hierarchical relationships is a way of recognizing that governments are not the only relevant actors in solving and managing socioenvironmental problems; rather, these are shared responsibilities, as scholars on the subject mention (Kooiman 2003; Pierre and Peters 2000; Rhodes 1997; Stoker 1998). Regarding society-society relations, they refer to existing various forms of collective organization at smaller social and spatial scales (e.g., communities and networks of civil society organizations and other agents that contribute to the generation of governance from the bottom up). Elinor Ostrom’s school has made important contributions to understanding the value of the governance of the commons and its interconnection with broader scales through the establishment of rules that contribute to the maintenance of socioecological systems.

Studies predominantly report a critical approach to environmental governance, questioning certain practices and uses that discredit its usefulness, which can add to the lack of clarity in the concept definition. Some authors conceive it as an empty concept because it is used to simulate the participation of agents involved in decision-making or to endorse processes that do not involve consultation or social participation, thus favoring agents with economic and political power. Likewise, different agents with decision-making capacity (public and private) do not accredit local groups and inhabitants as subjects of law, undermining the democratic values to which the concept appeals as well as community processes and forms of local organization and generating significant potential for conflicts. On the other hand, the lack of adequate communication channels and transmission of information between actors involved and authorities is detected, to which are added institutional gaps and lax regulations used to execute projects affecting socioecosystems. Environmental governance as a mechanism of democratic and plural social participation requires much work in the region, especially because there are contradictions between development policies and the current state of socioecosystems and respect for individual and group human rights.

Community environmental governance contrasts with other forms of governance since several studies report that communities that are capable of formulating their own rules to regulate social life and interactions with socioecosystems can be successful in the management of their resources. However, these favorable aspects have exogenous limitations associated with the state and other external agents’ relations as well as variations in public policies over time that can discourage or affect forms of local governance.

The main challenge presented by environmental governance in Latin America is the lack of a democratic tradition that favors relations between state and society based on mutual recognition as subjects of rights; therefore, the lack of respect for the rule of law has repercussions for local societies and ecosystems. These problems seem to be far from being solved in pandemic and postpandemic contexts, since inequalities and poverty have increased in the region and with authoritarian outbreaks, while local societies and groups continue to protest decisions that violate their rights.

Declarations of interest: none

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Diagram 1 is available in Supplementary Files section.

No competing interests reported.

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Diagram 1: Process of exclusion-inclusion

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Conceptual and analytical diversity of environmental governance in Latin America: A systematic review

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Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

Theoretical framework

Results

1. Descriptive analysis of trends in studies on environmental governance in Latin America

2. Trends in environmental governance studies according to the approach

2.1. Critical analysis

2.2. Methodological proposals

2.3. Criteria identification

2.4. Public policy recommendations

2.5. Proposal construction

2.6. Expressions of collective action

2.7. Future scenario prediction

3. Main challenges of environmental governance in Latin America

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Supplementary

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1