6.1 Characterization of Class I, Class II and Class III sites
Three examples chosen from the same coastal unit “Cliffs and Valleys of Pays de Caux” were used to characterize the three scenic classes recorded in this study: Valleuse d’Antifer (D: 1.01, Class I), Val de la Mer (D: 0.80, Class II) and Valleuse des Moutiers (D: 0.56, Class III). Their ratings, averages and membership degree curves are presented in Fig. 10 to give an immediate visual state of their natural and human parameters.
1) Class I are extremely attractive sites with outstanding scenic characteristics (D≥0.85), reflected by top scores for both physical and human parameters (Fig. 10A—C). Fully owned by the CdL (since 1994) and managed by the department of Seine-Maritime through an operational management plan set up in 2007, Valleuse d’Antifer is the perfect illustration of a top scenic site (D: 1.01). Also known as Plage du Tilleul, it requires a 30-minute walk from the famous village of Etretat (remote typology). Top grades were observed for all human aspects apart from Skyline (rated 4). This low visual impact is linked to the port of Bruneval located few kilometres to the West. Histograms, weighted averages and attribute curves, skewed to the right, clearly reflect good scores obtained for attributes “4” and “5” (Fig. 10C). Regarding physical parameters, excellent scores were particularly observed for “Cliffs”, “Beach face”, “Landscape features”, “Vistas” and “Water colour” (Fig. 10A). This site is part of a vast area (nearly 15 km of coastal length) in process of being awarded Grand Site de France (GSF 2022). In this paper, seven sites fell within this class.
2) Class II corresponds to attractive sites with high landscape value (0.65≤D<0.85). These sites generally rated lower than Class I due to a lower scoring of the physical parameters or because of the influence of human activities. For example, at Val de la Mer (D: 0.80), good scores were observed relating human aspects but, comparing with the former, lesser ratings were noticed for physical characteristics; namely, “Cliff height” (nearly 60 m in height, rated 4), “Beach width” (4 m width at high-tide, rated 2), “Landscape features” (rock edges, rated 3), amongst others. These aspects are well reflected by Fig. 10A—C. In total, five sites were categorized as Class II.
3) Class III sites are frequently located in remote, rural or village areas with medium landscape values (0.45≤D<0.65). With similar physical characteristics than Val de la Mer (Fig. 10A), Valleuse des Moutiers (D: 0.56) was rated as Class III essentially because of litter problems (rated 3), which significantly downgraded its attractiveness. Another case is Baie d’Authie (D: 0.61), which “D” value was lowered by the presence of litter associated with low skyline quality in spite of the very positive values showed by physical aspects. For Dunes Dewulf complex (D: 0.49), physical factors scored well but poor skyline quality (rated 2) lead the site to Class III. Despite the focus of this study, these sites were chosen either because of their potential to be upgraded to Class II or because of their singularity, i.e., the historic heritage of Dunes Dewulf complex.
6.2 Human parameters vs Conservatoire du Littoral policies
From a scenic approach, only a small number of changes can be made to improve physical parameters, e.g., formation of artificial dunes or beach nourishment. Thereby, attention should be essentially paid to work out ways of upgrading anthropogenic parameter scores (or keep them high), although certain scenic impacts are just irreversible as travel back in time is not feasible. This is particularly the case of “Skyline” and “Built environment”. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to maintain the natural character of the remaining undeveloped coast. With this regard, the focus of this paper is the research of remarkable attractive natural sites not (or only slightly) affected yet by human intrusions with a view to explore the following questions: what is the legacy of the Conservatoire? What are the benefits of its management approach on scenic beauty?
As stated, since its creation in 1975, the Conservatoire attempts to protect natural environments and coastal landscapes by acquiring non-urbanized sites in metropolitan France and overseas. If acquisitions are often justified by the quality of the scenery, it seeks to define the correct approach for conserving and enhancing the natural beauty of its sites through the application of local solutions to local challenges, respecting the following principles:
- Preserve peace, tranquillity and essence of sceneries, avoiding their “banalisation”,
- Favour light and reversible interventions,
- Involve local actors, e.g., stakeholders, association, guards, etc.,
- Support cultural and traditional activities, e.g., sustainable agricultural practices,
- Prioritise nature based-solutions with a long-term view.
In this regard, a detailed analysis of the eight human parameters scored at the 16 investigate sites (Fig. 9) is presented in following lines. Likewise, specific emphasis is given to the Conservatoire with the aim of explore its existing policies related to each aspect, enabling to interpret its effectiveness.
1) Noise disturbance is mainly linked to human activities carried out near the beach, e.g., playing loud music (bars), jet skis, heavy, traffic, overcrowding scenarios, etc., and was almost non-existent at all investigated sites during the field observations (rated 5; Fig. 9, Table 3). Only at Pointe du Touquet, little disturbances was perceived and associated with the presence of a small airport located 5 km apart from the beach (rated 4, Fig. 9). Usually, disturbance associated with visitors may increase in August, during the peak tourist season, especially at places of easy access. It is well-known that access difficulty is an essential component of the management approach to regulate visitors’ pressure. Thus, it is interesting to highlight that all sites owned by the CdL required at least a 15-minute walk from the nearest car park. With this in mind, adequate access restrictions were implemented in the last decade at Cran d’Escalles and Cran Poulet by moving away the car park by 1 km from the beach (Fig. 11A,B). Both sites belong to the Grand Site des Deux Caps, the second most visited site belonging to the CdL in France after the famous Dune de Pilat, which receives ca. 2.5 million visits every year (CdL 2016). Other places such Marquenterre, demand at least a 45-minute walk. However, it has to be noted that places such as Pointe du Hourdel, Bois de Cise, Val de la Mer or Pointe du Touquet, which do not belong to the Conservatoire, were easily accessible by a walk <10 minutes.
2) Litter items were usually characterized by “few scattered items” (rated 4) or “virtually absent” (rated 5, Fig. 9). Only two places showed single accumulations of litter (rated 3); i.e., Baie d’Authie and Valleuse des Moutiers (Fig. 9). Items are usually not discharged by beach users but transported and stranded by waves and currents. Regarding the former place, its presence is quite unusual as it is part of a strong European project, previously described, involving many actors to increase the ecological quality of the estuary (Life Adapto 2022). It may have been a provisional temporal accumulation made by clean-up operators as litter was virtually absent along the remaining investigated sector. At Valleuse des Moutiers, accumulations were essentially attributed to marine and land sources (rivers) together with the absence of periodic cleaning operations (Fig. 11C). If their current litter scores (3) are improved to obtain a rate of 4, their index D would jump respectively from 0.61 to 0.74 (Baie d’Authie) and 0.56 to 0.68 (Val Moutier). These interventions would upgrade both sites to Class II. Since 2006, the Conservatoire claims manual cleaning operations rather than mechanical ones, to not remove seaweed, to protect sites from erosion and conserve their biodiversity (Plan de réduction et gestion des macro déchets) (CdL 2022). In this way, it is interesting to highlight that several “Tidal bins” (Bac à Marée) were implemented along the study area by different managers working together with the CdL, as part of the Trait Bleu program (BAM 2022). Such was the case at Dunes Dewulf, Dunes d’Écault, Platier d’Oye and Marquenterre (Fig. 11D,E).
3) Sewage was virtually absent at the investigated sites. Its presence is more usual in urban or village beach typologies (Anfuso et al. 2019), but unusual in remote areas.
4) Non-Built Environment is the environment perceived minus its artificial constructions, e.g., buildings, car parking, etc., i.e., it essentially involves cultivated areas. Here, all sites gave top scores (5) mostly because they were located on the back of dunes systems and cliffs, thus, were not visible from the beach. At few sites, pastures and meadows were slightly visible but did not have any scenic impact, e.g., Valleuse d’Antifer, Cran d’Escalles or Cran Poulet (Fig. 11F,G). It is noteworthy to mention that 90% of agricultural fields surrounding sites owned by the Conservatoire are permanent pasture fields (no-till farming) set up by means of conventions (CdL 2021c). Since coastal farming lands have decreased by 25% (period 1970-2010), essentially affecting small farms, supporting traditional and extensive practices together with small producers is one of the main CdL concerns. Today, agricultural leases for sustainable practices are about 30-60% cheaper within CdL lands (CdL 2021c).
5) Built Environment points out the visual impact of surrounding buildings. Most sites were characterized by top scores (“Historic or none”, rated 5) as they were located in natural environments, except at Pointe du Hourdel and Bois de Cise (both rated 4), where a few buildings of a village settlement were visible from the beach (Fig. 11J). Located at a crossroads between several cultures, northern France has had a rich and tumultuous past from Roman times to wartime occupation, creating a broad-sweeping historical heritage along its coast. The strong heritage link to the Second World War is omnipresent as it was the epicentre of the Atlantic Wall. These military vestiges, mainly composed of bunkers were valued as “historical environment” (rated 5). The dunes of the Dewulf complex represent a great example as it was one of the boarding beaches of operation Dynamo, which allowed 340,000 soldiers to be evacuated to England (English Heritage 2022). Today, a shipwreck from this operation is still visible at low tide alongside an impressive fort battery near the back dune (Fig. 4C and 11H).
By buying land, the Conservatoire also inherits their history (archaeological remains, lock keepers ‘huts, lighthouses, castles, war vestiges, etc.) and, thus, their maintenance, surveillance and/or functioning. Buildings without cultural interest, which may have a role in the management, are also preserved and used as visitor centres, houses for guards, agricultural uses, etc. Otherwise, whilst urbanization is spreading everywhere, constructions with negative impacts on scenery and without interest are entirely “erased” with the aim of recovering the beauty and natural identity of sites; i.e., 92 buildings were demolished in 2013 (CdL 2016). This recently happened at Cap d’Alprech situated 3 km away from Dune d’Ecault complex.
6) Access type is linked to the visual impact of car parking and/or roads. Herein, top scores were obtained apart from Pointe du Hourdel (not owed by the CdL), where an old road now closed to traffic and known as the “white road” can be seen along its southern sector. Redeveloped in 2018 for the exclusive use of bikes and pedestrians, due to its low scenic impact, obtained a rate of 4. Besides the scenic aspect, creating an adequate access is crucial from a management viewpoint as it partially determines the number of visitors. Make sites sustainably accessible and maintain their undeveloped character is clearly one of the Conservatoire priorities reflected within its management plan (Kalaora and Konits 2004; Joveniaux 2017; Freytet 2013). Camping, caravanning and the entry of motor vehicles on the sites, except for service or security reasons, are systematically prohibited (Freytet 2013). Today, nearly 900 littoral guards are employed to inform, supervise and control public welcoming (CdL 2021b).
7) Skyline refers to the silhouettes of buildings or others artificial structures not in harmony with the environment. Even if it was mainly associated with village settlements sensitively designed without high buildings (rated 4), most sites were relatively affected by its impact (Fig. 9). At some places, such as Cran d’Escalles, Baie de Wissant or Cran Poulet, it was linked to the marine traffic of large ships sailing through the English Channel (hundreds every day). At Pointe du Touquet, the presence of several wind turbines was also considered and rated 4. Dunes Dewulf recorded the worst score (2) because of the Dunkirk industrial port (Fig. 11I), and Baie d’Authie obtained a rate of 3 due to the city of Berk. Lastly, the unspoilt coast of Marquenterre (14 km of length) achieved top score at Skyline (5).
8) Utilities covers a large variety of human items, e.g., lighting, powerlines, seawalls, pipelines, leisure facilities, aid stations, amongst others. Practically all sites had good scores (>4) apart from Bois de Cise (rated 2). This latter showed poor scores because of the presence of hard coastal protection structures emplaced to avoid cliff erosion caused by wave action (Fig. 11J). At Cran Poulet, soft interventions were carried out to protect the cliff foot from erosion, near the valley mouth, by means of local cobbles (Fig. 11K), which gave a rating of 4. Both cases can be hardly compared as the former is backed by a few houses while the second is located in a fully natural environment. Thanks to this soft approach (that has a low scenic impact) alongside the interventions relating car access (car park removed away), Cran Poulet is classified as a top scenic site (Class I). Otherwise, without those hard structures, Bois de Cise would have been a Class II site (D: 0.66). The most common impact was related to a public stairway for beach access, certainly indispensable for sites backed by cliffs (Fig. 9), i.e., Cran d’Escalles, Valleuse des Moutiers, Val de la Mer (rated 4, Fig. 9). Despite showing the same scores (4), the visual impact of the stairway observed at Cran d’Escalles was quite lower than the one observed at Val de la Mer (Fig. 11L). At Marquenterre, the presence of mussel cultivation was rated 4.
Commonly, conflicts of interest arise between conservation and recreation as management approaches are usually focused on the latter (like within protected areas) (Mooser et al. 2018, 2020, 2021, 2022). With this regard, it is interesting to highlight that no recreational impacts were perceived along this study area. The
Conservatoire emphasis is devoted to social and economic development that conserves and enhances the natural and historic environment, e.g., agriculture, forestry, mussels farming and other social needs of local communities. Recreational activities are very limited as they are not consistent with the conservation of natural beauty, and can be summed up as pedestrian uses, e.g.,
Grande Randonnée GR footpath, and, to a lesser extent, cycling. Likewise, the CdL also possesses its own “Signage chart” (
Charte signalétique in French), which favour minimal - but effective - interventions, limiting the number of panels in key areas as in the Heritage Coast approach in England and Wales (Freytet 2013). Its sensitive aesthetic approach is associated with the presence of littoral guards posted on sites with high number of visitants.