Behavioral
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Disrupted sleep patterns and/or decreased sleep duration1 (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; Cellini et al., 2021; Farewell et al., 2020; Kinser et al., 2021; Kracht et al., 2021; C. Li et al., 2021; Peltz et al., 2020; Romero-Gonzalez et al., 2020; Shinomiya et al., 2021; Talbot et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2021; Zeng et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021; Çolak et al., 2021)
Disrupted dietary habits1
(Campagnaro et al., 2020; N. Carroll et al., 2020; Farewell et al., 2020; Ferrante et al., 2021b; Kinser et al., 2021; Mahmoud et al., 2021; Malkawi et al., 2020; Philippe et al., 2021; Thompson & Bardone-Cone, 2021; S. D. Wang et al., 2021)
Excessive media exposure1 (N. Carroll et al., 2020; Kinser et al., 2021; Lemieux et al., 2020; Yue et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2021)
Regular physical activity2 (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; Farewell et al., 2020; Gildner et al., 2020; Kinser et al., 2021; Kracht et al., 2021; Limbers et al., 2020)
Psychological/emotional resources - resilience, perceived self-efficacy, self-kindness, psychological flexibility2 (Boivin et al., 2020; Chasson et al., 2020; Daks et al., 2020; Farewell et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Gur et al., 2020; Kinser et al., 2021; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2020; Mo et al., 2021; Nodoushan et al., 2020; Peltz et al., 2020; Taubman-Ben-Ari et al., 2020; Valero-Moreno et al., 2021; Xue et al., 2021)
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Disrupted sleep patterns and/or decreased sleep duration2 (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020; N. Carroll et al., 2020; Cellini et al., 2021; Dellagiulia et al., 2020; Horiuchi et al., 2020; Z. Liu et al., 2020; Nassar et al., 2021; Shinomiya et al., 2021; Zreik et al., 2020)
Disrupted dietary habits2 (Ares et al., 2021; Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020; Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; Ferrante et al., 2021a; Jansen et al., 2021; Mahmoud et al., 2021; Philippe et al., 2021; Sama et al., 2020; S. D. Wang et al., 2021)
Excessive media exposure2 (Poulain et al., 2021; Yue et al., 2020)
Increased screen time2 (N. Carroll et al., 2020; de Sá et al., 2020; Horiuchi et al., 2020; W. Li et al., 2021; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020; Sama et al., 2020)
Regular physical activity1 (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; de Sá et al., 2020; Horiuchi et al., 2020; W. Li et al., 2021; Moore et al., 2020; Sama et al., 2020)
Loss of playing time outdoors2 (de Sá et al., 2020; Poulain et al., 2021; Sama et al., 2020)
Psychological/emotional resources- emotional regulation1 (Spinelli, Lionetti, Setti, et al., 2020)
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Changes in feeding practices3 (Farghaly et al., 2020; Jansen et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2021; Sánchez-Luna et al., 2021; Vazquez-Vazquez et al., 2021; S. D. Wang et al., 2021)
Breastfeeding3 (DeYoung & Mangum, 2021; Ferrazzi et al., 2020; Litmanovitz et al., 2021; Oncel et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020; Ronchi et al., 2021; Sabharwal et al., 2021; Zanardo et al., 2020)
Maternal-newborn separation days2 (Ashini et al., 2021; Bender et al., 2020; Conti et al., 2021; Farhadi et al., 2021; Franchi et al., 2020; Litmanovitz et al., 2021; W. Liu et al., 2020; Scala et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020)
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Relational
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Barriers to information on COVID-19 related health risks and/or inconsistent health related messages2
(Ding et al., 2021; Farewell et al., 2020; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020)
Fear of infection and vertical transmission2 (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Chasson et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2021; Fan et al., 2021; Farewell et al., 2020; Gur et al., 2020; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020; Mappa et al., 2020; Mo et al., 2021; Molgora & Accordini, 2020; Naurin et al., 2020; Rhodes et al., 2020; Thompson & Bardone-Cone, 2021; Yirmiya et al., 2021)
Fear of adverse birth outcomes2 (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2021; Gur et al., 2020; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020; Kinser et al., 2021; Mappa et al., 2020; Molgora & Accordini, 2020; Naurin et al., 2020; Rhodes et al., 2020; Yirmiya et al., 2021)
Family conflict and intimate partner violence2 (Chapman et al., 2021; Chmielewska et al., 2021; Daks et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Hamadani et al., 2020; Muldoon et al., 2021; Naghizadeh et al., 2021; Sakalidis et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021)
Lack of partner and/or family support2 (Daks et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2021; Farewell et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Kotlar et al., 2021; Manja et al., 2020; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020)
Unbalanced and increased caregiving and housework responsibilities during lockdown2 (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020; N. Carroll et al., 2020; Chmielewska et al., 2021; Costoya et al., 2021; Craig & Churchill, 2020; Del Boca et al., 2020; Ferns et al., 2021; Fosco et al., 2021; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020; Halley et al., 2021; Hjálmsdóttir & Bjarnadóttir, 2020; Malkawi et al., 2020; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Miller et al., 2020; Mousavi, 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020; Shafer et al., 2020; Shockley et al., 2020; S. D. Wang et al., 2021; Xue & McMunn, 2021; Yamamura & Tsustsui, 2021; Yerkes et al., 2020; Yildirim & Eslen-Ziya, 2020; Zamarro & Prados, 2021)
Number of children in household2 (Ding et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2021; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020; Yirmiya et al., 2021)
Caregiving responsibilities concerning children with neurodevelopmental disorders and/or chronic illnesses3 (Chen et al., 2020; Faccioli et al., 2021; Grumi et al., 2020; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Neece et al., 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020; Rogers et al., 2021)
Household children's age1 (Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020)
Family cohesion1 (Daks et al., 2020; Fosco et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021)
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Caregivers’ mental health: elevated stress, depressive and/or anxiety symptoms2 (Calvano et al., 2021; Cheng et al., 2021; DeYoung & Mangum, 2021; Gadermann et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2020; Patrick et al., 2020; Russell et al., 2020; Spinelli, Lionetti, Pastore, et al., 2020)
Secondary caregiver mental health grandparents3 (Wu et al., 2021; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020)
Family conflict / abuse / harsh parenting1 (Brown et al., 2020; Calvano et al., 2021; Chung et al., 2020; Connell & Strambler, 2021; Fosco et al., 2021; Kovler et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021; W. Li et al., 2021; Martins-Filho et al., 2020; Waller et al., 2021)
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requent parents-child dialogues about COVID-191 (Choi et al., 2021; Cohodes et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2020)
Decreased social interaction/ isolation2 (Farghaly et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Z. Liu et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2020; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020; Sama et al., 2020)
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Maternal-infant attachment3 (Farhadi et al., 2021; Fernandes et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2021; Mayopoulos et al., 2021; Oskovi-Kaplan et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2021; Steinberg et al., 2021; Suzuki, 2020; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Ben-Yaakov, 2020)
Family dynamics / parenting styles3 (Altena et al., 2020; Choi et al., 2021; Cohodes et al., 2021; Daks et al., 2020; Fernandes et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2021; Fosco et al., 2021; Mahmoud et al., 2021; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Di Giandomenico, et al., 2020; Romero et al., 2020; Waller et al., 2021; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020)
Family conflict / abuse / harsh parenting1 (Brown et al., 2020; Calvano et al., 2021; Chung et al., 2020; Connell & Strambler, 2021; Fosco et al., 2021; Kovler et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021; W. Li et al., 2021; Martins-Filho et al., 2020; Waller et al., 2021; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020)
Frequent parents-child dialogues about COVID-191 (Choi et al., 2021; Cohodes et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2020)
Maternal unbalanced and increased caregiving and housework responsibilities during lockdown2 (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020; Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; Chmielewska et al., 2021; Costoya et al., 2021; Craig & Churchill, 2020; Del Boca et al., 2020; Ferns et al., 2021; Fosco et al., 2021; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020; Halley et al., 2021; Hjálmsdóttir & Bjarnadóttir, 2020; Malkawi et al., 2020; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Miller et al., 2020; Mousavi, 2020; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020; Shafer et al., 2020; Shockley et al., 2020; S. D. Wang et al., 2021; Xue & McMunn, 2021; Yamamura & Tsustsui, 2021; Yerkes et al., 2020; Yildirim & Eslen-Ziya, 2020; Zamarro & Prados, 2021)
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Economic
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Economic recession2
(Ding et al., 2021; Silverman et al., 2020; Spinelli, Lionetti, Setti, et al., 2020)
Financial hardship and/or strain2
(N. Carroll et al., 2020; Chung et al., 2020; Daulay, 2021; Dhiman et al., 2020; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020; Gildner et al., 2020; Halley et al., 2021; Hamadani et al., 2020; Khoury et al., 2021; Kinser et al., 2021; Mulale et al., 2021; Perzow et al., 2021; Sakalidis et al., 2021; Silverman et al., 2020; Thayer & Gildner, 2020; S. D. Wang et al., 2021; Wimberly et al., 2021)
Employment insecurity2 (Gassman-Pines et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Gur et al., 2020; Halley et al., 2021; Kinser et al., 2021; Moyer et al., 2020; Quandt et al., 2020; Valero-Moreno et al., 2021; Vasilevski et al., 2021; S. D. Wang et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021)
Food insecurity2 (N. Carroll et al., 2020; Dumbre et al., 2020; Ferrante et al., 2021a; Hamadani et al., 2020; Moyer et al., 2020; Patrick et al., 2020; Rocha et al., 2021)
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Income inequality2 (W. Li et al., 2021)
Financial hardship and/or strain2
(Cheng et al., 2021; Chung et al., 2020; Dumbre et al., 2020; Fisher et al., 2021; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2020; Quandt et al., 2020)
Employment insecurity2 (Lawson et al., 2020; Quandt et al., 2020)
Food insecurity2 (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2021; Patrick et al., 2020; Rocha et al., 2021)
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Social and Cultural
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Isolation / social distancing measures/ lockdown2 (Achterberg et al., 2021; Bender et al., 2020; Brown & Shenker, 2020; Chan & Fung, 2021; Chapman et al., 2021; Dickerson et al., 2020; El-Osta et al., 2021; Farghaly et al., 2020; Hailemariam et al., 2021; Khoury et al., 2021; Mangiavacchi et al., 2021; Mizrak Sahin & Kabakci, 2020; Nomura et al., 2021; Overbeck et al., 2020; Protudjer et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020; Talbot et al., 2021; TG et al., 2021; Q. Wang et al., 2021)
Access barriers to health services2
(Cameron et al., 2020; Hailemariam et al., 2021; Masters et al., 2021; Moyer et al., 2020; TG et al., 2021; Vasilevski et al., 2021; Q. Wang et al., 2021)
Lack of social support2 (Chasson et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2021; Farewell et al., 2020; Gur et al., 2020; Kassaw & Pandey, 2020; Lebel et al., 2020; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020; Rhodes et al., 2020; Taubman-Ben-Ari et al., 2020; Vazquez-Vazquez et al., 2021; Zhang & Ma, 2020)
Maternal education level3 (Aksoy Derya et al., 2020; Daulay, 2021; Gildner et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Kassaw & Pandey, 2020; Lee et al., 2020; W. Li et al., 2021; Mangolian Shahrbabaki et al., 2021; Quandt et al., 2020; Scarpellini et al., 2021)
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Social distancing measures/ Lockdown2 (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020; Dumbre et al., 2020; Farghaly et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Z. Liu et al., 2020; Mangiavacchi et al., 2021; Moore et al., 2020; Neece et al., 2020; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020; Quandt et al., 2020; Sama et al., 2020; Shah et al., 2021)
Disrupted early childhood education- school and daycare centers closures2 (Bao et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2020; Z. Liu et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2020; Moscardino et al., 2021; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020; Quenzer-Alfred et al., 2021; Sama et al., 2020; Scarpellini et al., 2021)
Access barriers to health services2 (Ayas et al., 2020; Brisca et al., 2021; Cui et al., 2020; Quandt et al., 2020)
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