Nanostructured Materials from Plant, Animal, and Fisheries Wastes: Potential and Valorization for Application in Agriculture

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1844329/v1

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Nanostructured Materials from Plant, Animal, and Fisheries Wastes: Potential and Valorization for Application in Agriculture

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1844329/v1

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Global agriculture is facing tremendous challenges due to climate change. The most predominant amongst these challenges are abiotic and biotic stresses caused by increased incidences of temperature extremes, drought, unseasonal flooding, and pathogens. These threats, mostly due to anthropogenic activities, resulted in severe challenges to crop and livestock production leading to substantial economic losses. It is essential to develop environmentally viable and cost-effective green processes to alleviate these stresses in the crops, livestock, and fisheries. The application of nanomaterials in farming practice to minimize nutrient losses, pest management, and enhance stress resistance capacity is of supreme importance. This paper explores innovative methods for synthesizing nanostructured materials using plants, animals, and fisheries wastes and their valorization to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses and input use efficiency in climate-smart, and stress-resilient agriculture including crop plants, livestock, and fisheries.

Abiotic and biotic stresses

Crop

animal

and fisheries wastes

Nanostructured materials

Mitigation

Valorization

Agriculture globally has shown appreciable growth in the last few decades, meeting the demand for food for the growing population. Growth in the agricultural sector in terms of 'development objective' is considered a crucial element in developing countries because more than 60% of the population directly or indirectly depends upon agricultural production to earn their living (Rai et al., 2012). Similarly, livestock and fish farming, including aquaculture, are important allied activities to agriculture worldwide. These sectors play a vital role in providing food, and nutritional security and hold the key to enhancing the livelihood of the poor farmers. Aquaculture water comes from one source or a combination of several sources such as groundwater, surface water (freshwater, brackishwater, and seawater), and an alternative source (rainwater). Based on salinity, aquaculture is classified as freshwater aquaculture, brackishwater aquaculture, inland saline aquaculture, and mariculture (Figure-1). Besides, there is a vast potential of reservoirs and wetlands for enhancing fish production through culture-based fisheries or reservoir fisheries.

Diversification and improvement of agricultural production in terms of field and horticulture crops, dairy, goatery, poultry, and fisheries along with household-based other off-farm activities such as backyard farming/kitchen gardening supported by technological innovations can fuel the economy of the rural areas through livelihood improvement. Integrated Agri-aquaculture is family-based, the zero-budget farming systems involving synergies among farm enterprises with the advantages of using animal manure, crop by-products, pond sediments, and aquaculture wastewater as pond fertilizer, and supplementary feed for fish, fertilizers, and irrigation for crop plants respectively, ensuring higher food production, environmental conservation, and food security.

In the coming decades, climate change is the major constraint for crop, livestock, and fish production, and its adverse effect on the degradation of land, soil, and water quality and related environment can hinder the growth of the agricultural sector, which is expected to affect the farmers severely. Furthermore, abiotic stresses like elevated temperature, salinity, acidity, alkalinity/sodicity, nutrient deficiency, chemical pollutants, and poor water quality have gradually increased, leading to major agricultural production limitations (Figure-2). Also, biotic stresses of bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal pathogens are adversely affecting agricultural production. After years of the green revolution, the agricultural sector faces a decline in agricultural products regarding world population growth. In recent years, soil pollution and agricultural land degradation with hazardous compounds present in urban and industrial wastewater are the most important factors limiting food crop production in the world (Mousavi et al., 2011). Moreover, the sector has to deal with many other concerns like depleting nutrients in the soil, accumulation of pesticides and fertilizers, and sustainable use of natural resources (Ali et al., 2014). Agricultural research and development have made a significant contribution in the past. Implementation of technological innovation has a major role to play in enhancing agricultural production and ensuring food security. Therefore, it is the apparent necessity to adopt new technologies that can shape modern crop farming in a more productive way that would finally lead to precision agriculture and ensures the supply of the right amount of input at the time of need (Prasad et al., 2012).

Ameliorating conditions of abiotic and biotic stresses is a critical aspect in the context of sustainable production. Mitigating these stresses using ineffective conventional methods is a significant challenge. Innovative nanotechnological approaches have emerged with diverse application in the rapidly emerging field of the global food sector for human and animal welfare, and medicine and has potential applications in agriculture. The potential of nanotechnological intervention is incredible concerning livestock. It resolves many other issues related to livestock production, animal health, reproduction, and maintaining hygienic practices during the rearing period of the food animals. However, the application of nanotechnology in agriculture and forestry is likely to have several environmental, health, and economic benefits as it offers the opportunity for the safer and effective administration of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and the nanostructured materials also help to eliminate the toxic components from the agricultural ecosystem (Kuzma and VerHage, 2006).

Nanoscience represents innovative platforms that ensure to provide a broad range of novel and advanced technologies for environmental, biological, and agricultural applications. A robust and environmentally viable process for synthesizing metallic nanoparticles is an essential step to advancing nanotechnology. The cost-effective synthesis of metal nanoparticles is a vast area of research due to their potential applications in developing novel technologies. The inclusion of nanotechnologies in agriculture production and post-harvest processing and preservation confronts a new edge that deserves attention.

Input use efficiency and stress mitigation in crops, livestock, and fisheries is an emerging area of agricultural research. There is a need to use inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, and nutraceuticals in such a way that wastage will be minimized for efficient utilization and to make the final product economically viable. The development of a nanodelivery-controlled release system for these kinds of inputs may address the problems of their application in agriculture at the commercial level.

This review paper explores the innovative methods for synthesizing nanostructured materials using plants and animal wastes and their valorization to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses and input use efficiency in crops, livestock, and fisheries.

The circular economy is based on the concept of producing more from less, turning waste into new resources by optimizing production and consumption systems, besides losing nutrient loops and reducing harmful discharges to the environment. This involves smart and efficient use of resources, minimizing and repurposing 'waste. Valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products or value addition currently considered waste and discarded can provide a second life to products, which is a core aspect of the circular economy.

The synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using food wastes and their aquaculture applications has recently gained considerable attention. Generally, chemical processes used for the synthesis of nanoparticles are toxic, flammable, and adverse in various applications. However, green synthesis is a better alternative due to its environmental viability, non-hazardous, and safe application in fisheries. The agro-food industries are one of the most significant production sectors worldwide, with a turnover of US$4 trillion per year (Tekiner et al., 2015). Recently, the management of food waste processing has emerged as a major constraint. Within the past few decades, extensive research has been conducted to explore innovative methods for synthesizing nanostructured materials using extracts and wastes from field crops, horticulture crops, livestock, poultry, aquaculture, and fisheries. The research has paved the way for exploring the interactions among various systems including physical, chemical, biological systems, agro-food, and nutrition sectors. There is an excellent potential to enhance food quality and constituents such as nanoparticulate delivery systems, food safety, and biosecurity (Tekiner et al., 2015). Schematic details of circular economy applied to the synthesis of nanostructured materials using plants, livestock, and fisheries are presented in Figure 3 and their valorization for potential applications in agriculture is presented in Figure 4.

2.1. Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plant wastes

Plant extracts and lignocellulosic agro-waste-based products have been used for the bioremediation of nitrogenous and heavy metals in aquaculture systems and related aquatic environments (Krishnani et al. 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019, Krishnani and Ayyappan 2006, Parimala et al. 2004, 2007). Recently, nanomaterials opened a green approach to solving current environmental issues. However, conventional NPs synthesis requires the use of toxic chemicals and generates organic wastes. Hence, in recent years, plant-mediated and biomolecule-derived synthetics have gained much attention. It is estimated that about 95% of rural and 70% of urban births in developing countries are dependent on traditional medicines for pre-and post-maternity care (Nasar et al., 2019). There is undoubtedly an urgent need to assess the indigenous knowledge of rural communities associated with the ethnobotanical species and indigenous scientific evaluation of our original medicinal plants in today's scenario. It is expected that many biomolecules of indigenous plants may prove important as an alternative to hazardous chemicals during the synthesis of nanostructured materials. A recent medicinal plant application involves the use of plant extracts as reducing agents for the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles. The plants mediated synthesis of nanoparticles has gained tremendous interest. Plants and their extracts are preferred over other biological sources for green synthesis due to their rich contents of bioactives. The synthesis of nanoparticles using plant extracts have an edge over other biological syntheses. A plant extract dispense with the maintenance of bacterial, fungal, and algal cultures. Plant extracts contain bioactives including phenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids implicated in the bio-reduction of metal into NPs (Ovais et al., 2018). Plants with well-known medicinal properties are extensively used for the shape and size-controlled synthesis of Ag NPs (Zhan et al., 2011). The size of NPs is affected by several factors such as temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and time of exposure (Gericke et al., 2006). Among all metals, AgNPs received substantial attention due to their higher stability, catalytic potential, and electrical conductivity. Silver tends to react with sulfur of the proteins present in biological membranes and phosphorus present in DNA more effectively. Nanostructured materials have significant potential in controlling pathogens associated with humans and animals. Currently, AgNPs applications have the highest degree of commercialization among all the nanoparticles in consumer products due to their wider applications, ranging from medical devices and home appliances to water treatment. Ag NPs are categorized as potent antimicrobial agents (Elechiguerra et al. 2005, Shahverdi et al. 2007), hence used for treating wounds and burns (Samuel and Guggenbichler, 2004). They also act as growth promotors (Sarkar et al. 2015) and immune boosters as well (Beck et al. 2015) at limited doses.

Agricultural waste materials used in the synthesis of Ag NPs and their applications to alleviate abiotic and biotic stresses are presented in Table 1. Kumar et al. (2012) used agriculture waste - aqueous peel extract of Annona squamosa to synthesize irregular spherical silver nanoparticles (35±5 nm). A simple and reproducible method has been used for AgNPs impregnation with cellulose isolated from citrus waste, which is used for the antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Ali et al., 2017). The AgNPs impregnated cellulose can be effectively used as a scavenger of free radicals at the wound site in wound dressing to prevent the bacterial attack and also as filters for bioremediation and wastewater purification.

Green synthesis of nanoparticles using seaweeds is fascinating and gaining attention in biomedical applications. Ramkumar et al. (2017) synthesized functionalized Ag NPs using an aqueous extract of seaweed Enteromorpha compressa as a reducing and stabilizing agent and demonstrated their biocompatibility for efficient antimicrobial and anticancer activities. Elemike et al. (2017) reported the synthesis of Ag NPs derived by aqueous leaf extract of Lippia citriodora at two different temperatures. Plants-derived Ag NPs showed considerably higher antimicrobial activities than the crude plant extract against several tested pathogenic strains such as Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi) and Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and fungi, Candida albicans. A facile synthesis of highly stable Ag NPs was reported using a biopolymer, xylan, to reduce and stabilize the agent (Harish et al., 2015). The synthesized Ag NPs showed excellent free radical scavenging activity.

In spite of the voluminous reports on biological syntheses of silver nanoparticles, information on the composition of capping agents, protein corona of plant extract-mediated synthesis, and their influence on the properties of AgNPs is scanty. In this direction, de Barros et al. (2018) utilized orange (Citrus sinensis) waste as a source of an extract and elucidated the protein corona composition, and also as a starting material for hesperidin and nanocellulose extraction used for the biobased synthesis of AgNPs, which has bactericidal activity against Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), which causes citric canker in oranges. Cacao contains oxalic acid, a powerful reducing agent, which has been used for its medicinal benefits. Chowdhury et al. (2016) hypothesized that oxalic acid present in cacao extract could reduce precursor silver nitrate to produce AgNPs.

Patra et al. (2019) used an aqueous extract of the outer peel of Pisum sativum for the synthesis of AgNPs under different lighting standard conditions. They explored their antibacterial, cytotoxicity, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activities. The wide usage of Ag NPs in an array of consumer products consistently results in their release into the wastewater. Cao et al. (2019) demonstrated the pollutant removals (TN and TP) effect of AgNPs in constructed wetlands with different plants Arundo donax and Cyperus alternifolius and the spatial distribution of silver.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles is environmentally viable due to their low cost and safe to nature. Extract of coconut (Cocos nucifera) shell was used to synthesize AgNPs, for their antibacterial activity against selected pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium (Sinsinwar et al. 2018). Food waste and grape pomace might be used for more environmentally-friendly processes to synthesize nanomaterials as they are excellent sources of bioactive compounds. An eco-friendly, quick, one-pot synthetic route has been used by González-Ballesteros (2018) to deal with the potential of Vitis vinifera grape pomace in obtaining gold (35 nm) and silver (43 nm) nanoparticles. The functional groups of biomolecules present in grape pomace extract were characterized by FTIR which indicated the involvement of biomolecules in the reducing and stabilization process. Green chemistry based on Kinnow (citrus) peel extract as a reducing and capping agent used for the synthesis of Ag NPs (17-27 nm) has been presented by Naz et al. (2017), which can be a useful tool in waste management.

Perveen et al. (2018) have demonstrated the extracellular synthesis of spherical silver nanoparticles (3 to 10 nm) from lychee fruit waste (peel) by the reduction and stabilization. Nasar et al. (2019) studied an environmentally viable and economically viable method for synthesizing silver nanoparticles via Ephedra procera C. A. Mey mediation. The silver nanoparticles are potential cytotoxic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant agents, and conjugation with selected antibiotics (amoxicillin, cefixime, and streptomycin) with carboxyl, hydroxyl, and alkanes groups are useful as antibacterials bullets against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Two natural sources, including cochineal dye with the principle-carminic acid and pomegranate peel extract, were employed to synthesize very dense and fine Ag nanoparticles (15–40 nm). The presence of carminate molecules around the silver atoms prevents the initial nuclei from agglomeration and does not provide enough steric hindrance to prevent the formed nanoparticles from coagulation (Goudarzi et al., 2016). Usually, the extract of the natural product is used as a reducing agent for Ag nanostructure formation. Antioxidant agents such as phenols, ellagic tannins, gallic, and ellagic acid esters available in pomegranate peel extract were mainly responsible for reducing the silver salt. Ag NPs (109.97 nm) photosynthesized by utilizing the aqueous extract of watermelon rind were tested for their antibacterial, anticandidal, and antioxidant activities (Patra 2016). Biocidal AgNPs (40-150 nm) were synthesized using the leaf extracts of subtropical plants Mangifera indica (Mango), Eucalyptus terticornis (Eucalyptus), Carica papaya (Papaya), and Musa paradisiaca (Banana) (Mahanty et al. 2013). Phytosynthesized AgNPs can be used as an alternative to antibiotics, and other biocides as an economically and environmentally viable therapeutic agent against Aeromonas hydrophila stimulated diseases in fish. Ahmad et al. (2019) highlighted the use of the bio-waste extract of Trapa natans for rapid, sustainable, and cost-effective biosynthesis of silver (15 nm), gold (25 nm) nanoparticles (NPs), and bimetallic Au-AgNPs composites (26-90 nm).

Agricultural waste materials used in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles and other nanomaterials and their applications in the mitigation of stresses of abiotic and biotic nature are given in Table-2. Recently, the biological synthesis of selenium NPs is gaining popularity due to their less toxicity, abundantly available source, and pharmacological importance (Pelyhe 2013). Biomaterials-derived synthesis used microbes such as bacteria and fungi, with a few from plant origin. Chemotherapeutic nanoscale Se (20–50 nm) was prepared from Spirulina polysaccharides by the solution phase method (Yang et al., 2012). Among plants, details of nanoscale Se synthesis were reported using Vitis vinifera (raisin) fruit (Sharma et al. 2014). Biologically synthesized nanoscale Se opens options to produce ecologically viable pharmacological additives.

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) pericarp waste extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent was used to synthesize Au and Ag NPs by a green strategy (Park et al., 2017). The study indicated that GM-AuNPs could be used as drug delivery carriers for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications without significant cytotoxicity. Phytochemical and FTIR spectral analyses indicated that the hydroxyl groups of carbohydrates, glycosides, flavonoids and phenolic compounds most likely cause the reduction of precursors gold or silver salts to their respective NPs. Francis et al. (2017) have demonstrated rapid microwave-assisted Au and Ag NPs synthesis derived by aqueous leaf extract of Mussaenda glabrata and their antibacterial and pollutants degradation activities. Biomolecule components having different functional groups in leaf extract, as confirmed by FTIR were responsible for its high potency to perform the reduction process.

2.2. Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using fisheries wastes

Like most food industries, fish processing generates wastes such as carcasses, viscera, skin, and heads. Nearly 63.6 million metric tons of fish waste would be generated globally if about 45% of the live fish weight is considered a waste material (Denham et al., 2015). Seafood processing generates a considerable quantity of solid and liquid wastes. There is a great need for a sustainable strategy to minimize environmental pollution and develop products of commercial interest from seafood processing wastes. Crab shells are one of the most common wastes generated by the seafood industry. Bhattacharjee et al. (2019) have synthesized an ultra-fine/ultra-crystalline biomaterial – apatite powder with an average crystallite size of 24.4 nm and particle size of 100–300 nm using crab shells from seafood wastes by an environmentally and economically viable approach. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicated calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, and oxygen as significant elements in the apatite constituents.

Ahn et al. (2018a) have developed a green synthetic method of anti-tumorigenic and anti-inflammatory Au NPs using the extract of jellyfish sea wastes as a reducing agent. Skate (Dipturus chilensis) cartilage extract was utilized as a green reducing agent by Ahn et al. (2018b) for synthesis of spherical Au NPs with an average size of 16.7 ± 0.2 nm, which can act as drugs or bioactive molecules delivery vehicles.

Reticulated chitosan micro/nanoparticles with an average diameter of 100 nm were synthesized by ionic gelation of chitosan prepared from shrimp shells using tripolyphosphate (Dima et al., 2015). Stable Cr(VI) complexes (anions) were formed due to adsorption onto protonated groups in chitosan particles and with the reduction of toxic hexavalent Cr to less toxic trivalent Cr from the solution. Sinha et al. (2014) have developed a cleaner, greener, economically, and environmentally viable irradiation technique for generating self-assembled Ag NPs using the aqueous extract of the waste fish scales. Gelatin as a reducing and stabilization agent can form gelatin-AgNPs colloidal dispersion dispensing with external reducing agents. The hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions between the micelle and the substrate are responsible for the nanoparticle catalytic activity in the micelle to reduce aromatic nitro compounds. A greener and innovative method for producing gold and gold-silver core-shell nanostructures has been developed using aqueous fish scales extract of the Labeo rohita (Sinha and Ahmaruzzaman 2015). This strategy not only depicted the dual functional ability of the fish scale extract as reducing and stabilizing agents but also eliminates hazardous chemicals/solvents, and harsh reducing and stabilizing agents. Kumar et al. (2017, 2018, 2019) have used green synthesis of AgNPs from the fish waste to mitigate multiple abiotic stresses in fish. Jha and Prasad (2014) have reported using the discarded fish gut of Labeo rohita to synthesize silver nanoparticles (8-40 nm).

2.3. Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using animal wastes

A significant portion of animal meat production generates waste while producing meat, the quantity of which is staggering. Only about 68-72% of a chicken, 78% of a turkey, 52% of sheep or goats, 60-62% of a pig, and 50-54% of a cow end up as meat for human consumption, and the remainder of each animal becomes waste after processing (Jha and Prasad 2016). A simple environment-friendly protocol, utilizing goat guts and other tissue and organ wastes, has been employed in ZnO nanoparticle (3-11 nm) synthesis. The typical household material, the eggshell of Anas platyrhynchos, is utilized as a reducing and stabilizing agent for the synthesis of Ag NPs (6-26 nm) and Gold-Silver core-shell nanoparticles (9-18 nm) using greener, environmentally and economically viable way (Sinha and Ahmaruzzaman, 2015). The efficiency of the NPs as photocatalysts is a promising application for removing hazardous dyes from industrial effluents. Amna et al. (2018) have used a facile technique of using the calcination of waste cow bones to synthesize hydroxyapatite NPs without the need for other chemicals or compounds. Hydroxyapatite possesses excellent biocompatibility, osteoconductivity, and non-immunogenic characteristics and is used frequently for diverse biomedical applications.

2.4. Bacterial-derived synthesis of metallic nanoparticles

Among microbial sources, Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria were used by Fesharaki et al. (2010) for the synthesis of 245-nm-sized Se nanoparticles from selenium chloride as a precursor. Singh et al. (2014) synthesized nano Se using Bacillus sp. JAPSK2 and selenium chloride as a precursor. Srivastava et al. (2013) described selenium nanostructures' biosynthesis from selenium oxyanions by using the bacteria Zooglea ramigera. Bahrami-Teimoori (2019) has demonstrated that both natural sources, industrial wastewater-acclimated Bacillus sp. and wild-growing Amaranthus sp. can create biologically active AgNPs efficiently. The AgNPs would be of keen interest in circumventing current antibiotic resistance. Singh et al. (2014) described a simple, economically viable, and unexplored method of using cell extracts of the cyanobacterium Anabaena doliolum for the "green" synthesis of Ag NPs as a potential antibacterial and antitumor agent.

In the last decade, nanomedicine-based nanotechnology has emerged as the frontier in the therapeutic and pharmaceutical fields. Nanotechnology has paved the way to open up new perspectives to analyze biomolecules, proteins, or cells, targeted drug delivery, development of non-viral vectors for gene therapy, clinical diagnosis, a transport vehicle for DNA, and disease therapeutics. In modern agriculture, agri-food nanotechnology is one of the essential tools, which is anticipated to become a driving economic force in the near future. The sustainability and protection of agriculturally produced foods, including crops for human consumption and animal feeding, are the main agri-food themes, which not only provide new agrochemical agents and novel delivery mechanisms to improve crop productivity, but also boost agricultural production, and input use efficiency (Sekhon 2014).

Recently, zeolite, a group of minerals has emerged as having considerable potential in a wide variety of agricultural processes. Recent advances in zeolite synthesis have offered a new group of materials such as yolk/core-shell materials with more unusual and sophisticated morphologies or architectures/ hierarchical structures in which the average diffusion path is reduced significantly and also nanoparticles are protected against poisoning or sintering by a thin zeolite shell. As compared to nanometric intrinsic cavities of zeolite frameworks, a large internal void is available for chemical reactions. Such catalysts, in which the permeability of the shell essentially governs the reaction can be considered as nanoreactors. Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali crystals and earth metals that possess infinite, and three-dimensional crystal structures. Such inter-crystalline and intra-crystalline mesopore systems have been widely used to encapsulate cations, complexes, and metals. Because of the unique dehydration-rehydration, adsorption, thermal stability, water retentivity, a cage-like structure consisting of SiO₄ and AlO₄ tetrahedra joined by shared oxygen atoms and ion-exchange properties of natural zeolites, they are used extensively as amendments in industries, agriculture, aquaculture and water treatment for many years. The presence of exchangeable cations balances the negative charges of the AlO₄ units, and cations Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Fe, which can be readily displaced by heavy metals and ammonium ions. The pronounced selectivity of zeolites for large cations, such as ammonium and potassium, can also be exploited to prepare chemical fertilizers that improve the soils' nutrient-retention ability by promoting a slower release of these elements for uptake by plants. Microporous cavities and mesoporous channels of zeolite frameworks can particularly be adapted for supporting nanoparticles. In addition, modiﬁcations of the surface and pores of zeolites make them attractive candidates for various applications. The value addition of zeolites through nanotechnological interventions can be explored to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses in aquaculture and their potential applications in agriculture.

3.1. Mitigation of abiotic stresses using biologically synthesized nanostructured materials and their valorized products

3.1.1. Fisheries

The comparative evaluation of extremely sophisticated nanotechnology-based on metal containing engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) with conventional process engineering proposes a new prospectus in technological developments for various applications including superior water and wastewater technology processes. These materials can be transformed during wastewater treatment and ultimately enter terrestrial ecosystems via agriculturally applied biosolids (Lewis et al., 2017). Water contamination is a serious threat to public health. Aquatic pollutants of chemical and microbial origin create a significant threat to water quality when the safety standards are not followed. Nanotechnology provided nanocatalysts such as ZnO, TiO₂, and WO₃ for the degradation of anthropogenic water pollutants (Sarkar et al., 2017) including rhodamine B and methyl orange effectively from the aquatic environment and wastewater sewages of dye industries. The synthesized nanoparticles' catalytic capacities were studied to reduce 4-nitrophenol (Francis et al., 2017).

Experiments were carried out by Kumar et al. (2017b, 2018e) to investigate the effects of concurrent exposure to stresses elicited by lead, and elevated temperature and evaluation of zinc nanoparticles counteract these stresses in Pangasius hypophthalmus. Results concluded that dietary zinc nanoparticles (Zn-NPs) @ 10 and 20 mg/kg diet could be more effective in enhancing the thermal tolerance and other biochemical attributes such as neurotransmitter enzyme acetylcholine esterase activities and oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the liver, gill, and brain of P. hypophthalmus were noticeably reduced in the concurrent exposure to Pb and high temperature. However, further work on the elucidation of the mode of action of ZnNPs in enhancing thermal tolerance in fish could be of immense use in aquaculture.

Kumar et al. (2018c, d) have successfully demonstrated that dietary AgNPs with a low concentration (0.5 mg/kg diet) as the growth promotor significantly improved the growth performance, immunological status, and antioxidative status of Channa striatus. Also, the AgNPs reduced other cellular stress and finally protected C. striatus against the challenge of Aeromonas veronii biovar sobria and concurrent exposure to Pb and high temperature. Kumar et al. (2017a, 2018a, b) have demonstrated that Se NPs at a 1 mg/kg diet have protected fish from abiotic and biotic stresses, as evidenced by the enhanced growth performance, antioxidative defense, and immune rescuing ability of the fish.

Krishnani et al. (2014) have successfully demonstrated electrochemically synthesized polyaniline, polypyrrole conducting polymers, and nanowires and their Pd decorated thin films for reduction of toxic hexavalent chromium Cr (VI) into less toxic Cr (III) and its subsequent adsorption onto the polymer. Based on this research finding, polyaniline conducting polymer is recommended for sensor applications for Cr (VI) detection at low pH. They reported a decrease in percent Cr(VI) reduction with an increase in pH from 1.8 to 6.8 and with initial Cr(VI) concentration ranging from 2.5 to 10 mg/L.

Intensive aquaculture results in a rise in nutrient concentration in the water bodies. High nutrient concentrations lead to severe eutrophication of freshwater, brackish water, and marine waters. Nitrogenous toxicants such as ammonia and nitrite are abiotic stresses in aquaculture. Intensive shrimp aquaculture is associated with elevated concentrations of total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) due to high shrimp excretion and feed loading (Shan and Obbard, 2001). TAN is the major end-product of protein catabolism. A higher concentration of TAN and other nutrients can adversely affect productivity and aquaculture waters by causing eutrophication and stress, unfavorable to the animals but favorable to the pathogens (Krishnani et al., 1997). Krishnani et al. (2012) have synthesized silver-ion-exchanged-zeolite for ammonia nanobioremediation. Nanobioremediation has potential applications in the environmental management of aquaculture systems. Silver zeolite has been recommended as a low-cost material for bactericidal and ammonia removal activities in aquaculture. In another study, nano-chitosan / zeolite composite at 5 g/kg had the potential to enhance growth performance, digestive enzyme activities, and some biochemical parameters in rainbow trout (Sheikhjadeh et al. 2016).

3.1.2. Animal husbandry

Environmental parameters such as wind speed, relative humidity, ambient temperature, and solar radiation interact to form 'Heat stress.' Heat stress can potentially restrict cattle production, affect their reproduction, milk quality and quantity, feed availability, and reduce dry matter intake. Heat stress causes increased respiration rate and saliva production and is responsible for reproductive disruption. The conception rate decreased beyond temperature extremes and resulted in low fertility in cows, inseminated during the summer months (Madhusoodan et al., 2019). Abiotic stressors, including pollution, climate change, and consequent oxidative stress, can damage cells as they continue to release reactive oxygen species. These reactive oxygen species are extremely harmful to cell biomolecules like protein, lipid, and DNA.

The use of selenium nanoparticles is recommended by Rayman (2015) to reduce oxidative stress in animals. Selenium nanoparticles also possess anti-carcinogenic properties and aid in thyroid metabolism, proper muscle functioning, and reproduction. Administration of nano selenium helps in increasing the productivity of stress-ridden livestock (Sarkar et al., 2015). When supplemented with broiler chicken's diet, copper oxide nanoparticles tend to reduce the heat stress-induced responses such as malonaldehyde concentration in the liver, and hepatic tissue degeneration and enhance glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase enzyme activity. Recommended supplementation of CuO NP could minimize the negative consequences of heat stress or elevated temperature during the summer months (El-Kassas et al., 2020).

Dietary supplementation of curcumin (native and solid nanoparticle form) in heat-stressed rabbits acts as natural antioxidants and normalizes physiological functions. The result demonstrated that dietary inclusion of curcumin NPs @ 2.5 mg/kg positively affects the final body weight, feed conversion ratio, and survival. It also showed a significant increase in antioxidant activity, total protein retention, and immunological performances. It resulted in a reduced concentration of cholesterol, low-density lipoproteins, triglycerides, urea, and malonaldehyde (El‐Ratel et al., 2020).

3.2. Mitigation of biotic stresses using biologically synthesized nanostructured materials and their valorized products

3.2.1. Fisheries

Aquaculture is one of the most important economies in many countries. However, biotic stresses caused by bacterial, viral, and parasitic origins are emerging constraints to aquaculture production. Disease-causing bacterial pathogens such as Vibrio harveyi in brackish water shrimp and Aeromonas hydrophila in freshwater fish can adversely affect aquaculture productivity. During the past decade, the shrimp production level has been increased and also accompanied by various diseases. Vibriosis outbreaks are a common problem in shrimp aquaculture worldwide, predominantly in India, creating an economic loss due to mass mortalities in hatcheries and grow ponds of shrimp. The development of antibiotic resistance in aquatic microbes has renewed a great interest in alternative methods of preventing and controlling diseases. Recently, production demands on the aquaculture industry have been centered around using antibiotics due to increased incidences of antibiotic-resistant bacteria with new avenues to use nanoparticles in the fish feed. Nanostructured materials not only have potential applications in controlling human, animal, and fish pathogens but also have comprehensive advantages in terms of holding the assurance for civilized protection of farmed fish against disease-causing pathogens (Dar et al., 2019).

Vibrionaceae is a bi-folded drug-resistant emerging pathogen active in various aquaculture sectors, especially in shrimp culture worldwide. V. parahaemolyticus is the most dreadful viral outbreak in shrimp culture. However, Vibrio species such as V. harveyi, V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulniﬁcus, and V. cholerae are mostly opportunistic pathogens in aquatic environments (Lightner, 1996, Karunasagar et al., 1994). Vibriosis has caused mass mortality of the shrimp reared in hatcheries and grow-out farms (de la Pena et al., 1993, Haldar et al., 2010). The presence of V. parahaemolyticus and V. cholerae in shrimp is a human health concern since these bacteria can cause acute gastroenteritis (Spite et al., 1978). Chemical control of Vibrio contamination is difﬁcult (Baticados et al., 1990). There is a need to ﬁnd new types of safe and cost-effective materials to eliminate and control the spread of such pathogens in foods or food processing environments. Red algae Portieria hornemannii was investigated to synthesize silver nanoparticles, which were found to be effective against the fish pathogens such as Vibrio harveyi, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus, and V. anguillarum (Fatima et al. 2019). This approach can be used as an alternative to commercially available antibiotics in the treatment of fish diseases. Sarkar et al. (2012) have developed a simple, single-step, environmentally viable, and cost-effective process for the synthesis of bactericidal silver nanoparticles (2-70 nm) using different organs (intestine, gills, and liver) of freshly sacrificed fish- rohu (Labeo rohita). With additional chemical intervention, these nanoparticles have applications for controlling fish pathogen Aeromonas hydrophilla in aquaculture and related aquatic environments.

Elayaraja et al. (2017) bacterial cellulose (BC) membrane produced by Gluconacetobacter xylinus in cell suspension was oxidized by TEMPO (2, 2, 6, 6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical) to activate the carboxyl group. AgNP anchored with BC TEMPO was generated to increase vibriocidal activity against the shrimp pathogen V. parahaemolyticus and V. harveyi.

Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is a widespread and ciliated protozoan ectoparasite of fish. Saleh et al. (2017) have investigated the effects of metal nanoparticles (Au, Zn, and Ag) on the reproduction and infectivity of free-living stages of I. multifiliis. They have successfully demonstrated that metal nanoparticles, particularly silver nanoparticles, hold the best promise for developing effective antiprotozoal agents useful in managing ichthyophthiriosis in aquaculture. Swain et al. (2014) have screened several metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles for their antimicrobial activities against a wide range of aquatic microbes (bacterial and fungal agents), including certain freshwater cyanobacteria. They have reported that synthesized copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), silver (Ag), and silver doped titanium dioxide (Ag-TiO₂) showed a broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, as they may be good candidates for aquaculture use. On the contrary, nanoparticles like Zn and ZnO showed antifungal activity against fungi like Penicillium and Mucor species.

Rapid reduction and stabilization of Ag+ ions with different molar concentrations of NaOH have been carried out in silver nitrate solution by the bio-waste peel extract of Pomagranate granatum (Jasuja et al., 2015). The AgNPs synthesized at 1.5 mM NaOH concentration had shown maximum zone of inhibition in E. coli, compared to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis.

The White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is a major viral pathogen in the shrimp aquaculture industry. Ochoa-Meza et al. (2019) have demonstrated that a single dose of silver nanoparticles @ 12 ng/mL could enhance the shrimp immune system's response without toxic effects on healthy shrimps with the result of 20% survival of treated infected shrimps, as there was no any histological evidence of damage at this concentration. Moreno (2017) evaluated the survival rate of juvenile white shrimps (Litopenaeus vannamei) after the intramuscular injection of different concentrations of AgNPs and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) alone into the organisms with the result of more than 90% of shrimp survival after 96h for all treatments. They further demonstrated that oxygen consumption rate and total hemocyte count remained unaltered after AgNP injection, reflecting no stress caused. Based on these promising results, they recommended further exploration of the potential use of AgNPs as antiviral agents for the treatment of diseases in aquaculture organisms.

Aeromonas hydrophila is a major infectious aquatic pathogen, which has reportedly developed resistance against many of the available antibiotics. This is the causative agent of ulcers, fin-rot, tail-rot, and hemorrhagic septicemia in fish. Mahanty et al. (2013) studied the inhibitory function of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against A. hydrophila for its possible application in aquaculture as an alternative to antibiotics.

Krishnani et al. (2014) have developed a recombinant Elastin-like biopolymer (ELP) composed of a polyhistidine domain with silver and successfully demonstrated its bactericidal activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 37 µg/ml against pathogenic bacteria against Escherichia coli, a model test strain for Gram-negative bacteria for antibacterial assays of nanoparticles and Vibrio harveyi, an opportunistic pathogen that causes mass mortality in shrimp Penaeus monodon reared in coastal aquaculture. This study has an application in formulating artificial protein-based antibacterial in diverse healthcare fields and managing disease in aquaculture.

The biological synthesis of nano-selenium paves the way for pharmacologically enriched, naturally stable nanoscale Se with high ecological viability (Sarkar et al., 2015). Such nano-Se mixed with commercial feeds can improve stress resilience and productivity of fish and livestock. Oxidative stress is responsible for reduced productivity in fisheries and livestock. Essential micronutrients play a very important role in combating oxidative stress. Nano Se acts as a potent antioxidant with reduced toxicity. The mechanism behind the role of dietary ZnNPs in enhancing thermal tolerance may be due to their role in repair and protection against damage from cellular stress associated with protein denaturation at elevated and lowered temperatures for controlling the expression of heat shock proteins (Nakano et al., 2002), besides the establishment of homeostasis with increased stimulation of the non-specific defense mechanism (Fraker et al., 2000, Rink et al., 2000).

Increased bacterial resistance to antibiotics is a major challenge for disease management. The investigation of alternative antimicrobials is one of the strategies to limit the development of antibiotic resistance. Silver nanoparticles have emerged as a powerful weapon against antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Shalaan et al. (2018) have demonstrated the antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles against A. salmonicida infection, which can develop antibacterial agents in aquaculture. Ag NPs, possessing good antimicrobial activity are widely used in many fields. Yang et al. (2016) have demonstrated that the incorporation of AgNPs influences biofilm bacterial communities in the marine environment and subsequently inhibits mussel settlement. Treatment of sepsis fish pathogens using nanosilver marine fungal chitosan could be an alternative as antibiotic synergisers. Francis et al. (2017) have successfully demonstrated that the synthesized gold and silver nanoparticles are potential inhibitors of pathogenic microorganisms including Bacillus pumilus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium chrysogenum.

Spherical and triangular nanostructures of the silver (2-17 nm) and gold (2-19 nm) nanoparticles were synthesized by Vijayan et al. (2014) using an aqueous extract of the seaweed Turbinaria conoides. They evaluated the nanostructures for their antibiofilm forming activity against marine bacteria and found that the synthesized Ag NPs were efficient in controlling the bacterial biofilm formation by E. coli, followed by Salmonella sp., S. liquefaciens, and A. hydrophila, whereas, Au NPs did not show any remarkable antibiofilm activity.

Mahanty et al. (2013) have synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs 10-150 nm) using the leaf extracts of subtropical plants Mangifera indica (Mango), Eucalyptus terticornis (Eucalyptus), Carica papaya (Papaya), and Musa paradisiaca (Banana) and evaluated the inhibitory function of AgNPs against Aeromonas hydrophila. Their study revealed that the papaya leaf extract synthesized AgNPs had maximum antimicrobial activity at 153.6 μg/ml and the eucalyptus leaves extract was the least. Also, the potency of the nanoparticles was enhanced with the decrease in particle size, from 60-150 nm in eucalyptus to 25-40 nm in papaya. Krishnani et al. (2012) investigated the antimicrobial activity of silver ion-exchanged zeolite against Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio harveyi, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and the MIC was found to be 40 ug/ml, and 50– 60 ug/ml respectively.

3.2.2. Animal husbandry

Livestock production demands their flocks and herds to achieve slaughter size within the shortest possible time to maximize their profitability. Antibiotics are profusely used as feed additives by livestock producers to attain the ideal slaughter size, prevent illness, and accelerate overall growth. While it is conducive from a production viewpoint but at the same time, excessive use of drugs led to a rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria and meat contamination. Nanoparticles have been identified as solutions to such restrictions without influencing the antibiotic resistance in microbes (Hill and Li, 2017). In this aspect, the adjuvant mechanism of Aluminium hydroxide nanoparticles was investigated. The result demonstrated that it could initiate a cellular and humoral immune response against Newcastle disease in chickens than conventional aluminum adjuvant (Tang et al., 2008).

Metal nanoparticles have wide utilization in agriculture and the veterinary field as a disease treatment agent. Examples of such nanoparticles are highlighted as follows: colloid nanosilver particles (silver content 0.05-0.10% by weight) act as a bactericidal agent against mastitis in cows (Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli., and Streptococcus spp.), Argovit (a compound of nanosilver and polyvinylpyrrolidone) used as a therapeutic and prophylactic agent in piglets to reduce disease outbreak and mortality, silver, magnesium and copper oxide NPs were shown to possess high antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms that causes digestive tract diseases and periodontal diseases in horses (Perfileva et al., 2019).

Silver nanoparticles are also used to inhibit the growth of hemorrhagic enteritis, inciting E. coli O157: H7 and yeast of bovine mastitis (Hill and Li, 2017). ZnO (zinc oxide) nanoparticles can prevent different fungal and zoonotic diseases in cattle by inhibiting the germination of fungi (Trichophyton mentagrophyte, Microsporum canis, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus fumigates) at a dose of 40mg ZnO/ml (El-Diasty et al., 2017). Nano-zinc oxide and montmorillonite were used as anti-diarrhea agents in piglets (Hu et al. 2012). Supplementation of chitosan nanoparticle-loaded copper increases average feed intake capacity and reduces diarrhea outbreaks (Huang et al., 2015). As Domestic swine are severely affected by the African swine fever virus (ASFV) due to no vaccine or proper medication, silver nanoparticles (SNPs) have been identified as novel antiviral agents against the swine viruses. It is observed that the application of SNP solution @25 ppm in the pig houses can prevent ASFV transmission and act as an antiviral agent against this disease (Dung et al., 2020).

3.3. Mitigation of multiple stresses using valorized products

3.3.1 Fisheries

Fish disease is a major stumbling block toward sustainable growth of the fisheries sector. The fisheries sector demands more technical innovation in drug use, disease treatment, nutraceutical delivery for rapid growth promotion, water quality management, and production of tailored fish for suiting better health. Nanotechnology has tremendous potential to revolutionize agriculture and allied sectors, including aquaculture and fisheries. Nanoparticles can serve as the functional unit and act as a delivery vehicle for materials conjugated to their surface or encapsulated within (Hill and Li 2017). There is an immense opportunity to use the nanoparticles to deliver nutraceuticals in fish feed and nutrigenomics studies. For these multiple-purpose efforts, the importance of nanotechnology and nano delivery of vaccines, nutraceuticals, inducing hormones, growth-promoting anabolics, and drugs open tremendous opportunities including delineation of the possible future application of nano delivery for aquaculture development (Aklakur et al., 2016). Krishnani et al. (2012) successfully demonstrated that silver ion-exchanged zeolite could impact disease and environmental management in shrimp aquaculture.

Changes in the aquatic water body’s temperature affect behavior, migration, metabolic processes, growth, reproduction, survival rate, and life span of the fish (Portner, 2001) due to their poikilothermic nature. The rise in the temperature and contamination level reduces the thermal tolerance of aquatic animals, including fish. Concurrently, it also altered the antioxidative defense systems through oxidative stress and other cellular metabolic enzymes (Abele and Puntarulo, 2004, Portner, 2002). Incorporating AgNPs at 0.5 mg/kg in the diet can confer protection to fish against Pb and thermal stress and enhance thermal tolerance of C. striatus (Kumar et al. 2018c, 2018d), as the enzymes involved in protein metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, acetylcholine esterase, and antioxidant activities were normal in fish fed with a 0.5 mg/kg AgNPs supplemented diet. Kumar et al. (2017b,c, 2018,e,f,g, 2019) have developed a novel feed formulation, wherein nano zinc has been demonstrated as an important nano-delivery component in fish feed in enhancing the thermal tolerance and protection against cellular stress in fish exposed to heavy metal-lead and temperature. Also, Kumar et al. (2017a, 2018 a,b) have developed a novel feed formulation, wherein nano selenium has successfully been demonstrated as important nano delivery component in fish feed in mitigating multiple stresses in fish.

There are many other studies that showed that the application of nanometals has a beneficial effect on the fish. Se-yeast and Nano-Se showed better growth performance, antioxidant activities, and enhanced fish Blunt snout bream meat quality than Na₂SeO at 0.2 mg Se kg-1 (Liu et al. 2017). With vitamin C300+Nano Se 0.68 mg/kg, blood physicochemical characteristics Hb, WBC, RBC counts improved, and liver and muscle protein content increased in Mahseer fish juveniles (Khan et al 2017). SeNP acts more efficiently on growth performance and antioxidant defense system of common carp than organic and inorganic sources of Se (Saffari et al 2017). Two times more uptake of vitamin C was noticed with nano-encapsulated form in Solea senegalensis postmetamorphic larvae, Rotifers Brachionus plicatilis (Jimenez- Fernandez et al 2014). RBCs and haemoglobin levels, immune parameters, bactericidal activity, and myeloperoxidase activity were higher in the FeNP-treated diet in Rainbow trout and Labeo rohita (Behera et al 2014). Nano diet feed-fed fishes showed a gradual increase in weight gain, length gain, and specific growth rate of fish Catla catla (Vineela et al 2017). Izquierdo et al (2017) have successfully demonstrated that adding Zn, Mn, and Se in the form of nanometals did not enhance growth, but improved stress resistance and bone mineralization in seabream larvae. Dietary supplementation with 0.2 mg/kg Se NP showed increased weight gain rate and reduced feed coefficient and offers resistance to hypoxia stress and improves immunity and disease resistance in Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (Qin et al. 2016). Wang et al. (2011) have demonstrated that the addition of chitosan nanoparticles significantly improved the final weight, daily weight gain, and feed conversion ratio of the fish Tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica). ZnNP supplementation up to 60 mg/kg showed significantly improved performance in survival, growth, and activities of digestive enzymes (protease, amylase, and lipase) in prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Muralisan-kar et al 2014). Vitamin E-supplemented diets can exert positive effects on the welfare of chronically stressed rainbow trout subjected to an additional acute stressor (Naderi et al 2017). The experimental study conducted by Asaikkutti et al (2016) demonstrated that prawns fed with a diet supplemented with 3-18 mg Mn-oxide NPs/kg enhanced growth performance, final weight, and FCR.

3.3.2. Animal husbandry

Sahoo et al. (2014) scrutinized Zinc nanoparticles as an immunomodulatory agent to boost immunity in broiler chickens. Administration of Zn nanoparticles @ 0.06ppm can improve the immune response compared to conventional inorganic and organic Zn (Sahoo et al., 2014). Supplemented Zn nanoparticles alter the production of volatile fatty acids and can change the kinetics of rumen fermentation. It has also contributed to improved growth of ruminal microorganisms, microbial protein synthesis, and efficient energy utilization (Zhisheng, 2011).

Furthermore, nanotube implanted under the skin of livestock can provide real-time estradiol concentration in the animal blood (Rajendran, 2013). Nanomaterials are also used to design various sensors to study the actual causes of abortion in live stocks. The application of nano antioxidants improves reproductive or infertility problems in veterinary practice (Swain et al., 2015). Similarly, nano calcium carbonate can significantly enhance the absorption and utilization rate of calcium in farmed livestock. Vitamin D3 in the nano-level, when added to the feed of egg-laying hens, showed better performance compared to ordinary vitamin D3 (Huang et al., 2015).

It has also been noticed that persistent ischemia (deficiency of arterial blood supply to various organs) in livestock can lead to atrophy or necrosis of the affected organ. Therefore, it is crucial to trigger angiogenesis (formation of new blood capillaries from the pre-existing blood channels) in the targeted area without affecting the normal tissue. Zinc oxide nanoflower showed a significant angiogenic property in chick embryos in vivo and in vitro conditions (Raguvaran et al., 2015).

The importance of nanotechnology in agriculture and relevant industries is well established as it serves as an interdisciplinary technique to resolve various lacks and problems. It has been documented that nanotechnology includes four developmental stages. Stage 1 represents the designing of "passive nanostructures," capable of deploying the passive properties of the material used. The second stage focuses on developing an "active multitasking nanostructure," and in the third stage, several nano-tools forming a "nano-system" works in combination to reach a common goal. Finally, the fourth stage represents the era of designing molecular-based nano-systems and leads to atomic and molecular instruments with diversified functions (Elnashaie et al., 2015). The synthesized nanoparticles can be valorized by challenging their structural complexity, and these value-added nanostructured materials are comparatively more versatile.

Integration of valorized nanoparticles with the existing technologies can revolutionize the agricultural sector and aid in developing new alternatives for disease diagnosis, enhance the nutrient absorption ability of the crops, and withstand unfavorable environmental conditions. It ensures practical storage, processing as well as packaging of the products. Sharon et al. (2010) suggested that nanotechnology can solve various crop production issues and post-harvest products. Similarly, nanostructured materials are available commercially, enhancing herbicides and pesticides' efficiency, thus reducing the dose of a sufficient concentration to be applied in the field (Joseph and Morrison, 2006). Nanotechnological interventions in agriculture aim to stimulate the natural process with further scientific articulation (Figure 5). For instance, nanotechnology-based nutrient management mainly relies on two vital factors: an abundance of bioavailable ions in the soil and the plant-soil system's ionic exchange mechanism (Mousavi and Rezaei, 2011). The use of nanoparticles will facilitate the rate of nutrient availability to the plants and ensure proper growth (Mukhopadhyay, 2014).

4.1. Mitigation of abiotic stresses using biologically synthesized nanostructured materials and their valorized products

4.1.1. Field crops

The unique properties of nanoparticles can be utilized in the agricultural sector, especially to promote growth and increase tolerance toward abiotic stresses. It has also been observed that plants produce natural mineral-based nanoparticles required for their growth (Wang et al., 2001). The most commonly faced abiotic stresses by the crop plants include salinity fluctuation, drought, mineral deficiencies, submergence, non-optimal temperature, and low soil fertility (Boyer, 1982, Bulgari et al., 2019). However, among these stresses drought, salinity, and cold temperature are mainly responsible for reduced crop yield. Hence, these stressors left the plant with no options but to adjust to various unfavorable environmental conditions. After that, they modulate their physiological pathways as defense strategies against stressors. The majority of crop plants are susceptible to salinity fluctuation resulting in reduced productivity (Flowers, 2004). The use of nano-fertilizers can effectively enhance the uptake of nutrients by the crop plants and minimize the usage and toxic effect of pesticides and fertilizers in the soil (Saxena et al., 2016).

Raven (1983) observed that silicon nanoparticles could reduce Na+ ion absorption by the crop plants and help the plant grow under high salinity and high Na+ ion concentration. The application of silicon nanoparticles in field crops enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes, immobilization of metallic ions, enhance nutrient uptake, facilitate co-precipitation of toxic ions, and ultimately resulted in abiotic stress tolerance (Liang, 2007). It has been determined that silicon nanoparticles can ease the cadmium stress in rice as it enhances the proportion of live cells. However, the extent of stress reduction gradually decreases as the size of the silicon nanoparticles increase. Under cadmium toxicity, when the plant cells are exposed to SiNPs, they remain intact, whereas, in the absence of SiNPs, the morphological growth of the plant is hampered (Cui et al., 2017). Under salinity stress, silicon nanoparticles can significantly increase the germination process and seedling growth of lentil plants. In contrast, a considerable reduction in seed germination was observed on lentil crops under salinity stress without the application of Si nanoparticles. Silicon nanoparticles were also reported to positively impact salinity stress in Squash (Siddiqui et al., 2014) and Faba bean (Qados and Moftah, 2015). Henceforth, it is evident that Si nanoparticles can alleviate the defense mechanism in plants under salinity fluctuation (Sabaghnia N et al., 2015).

It was observed that under water deficit conditions, the application of TiO₂ nanomaterials could positively impact the wheat plant's growth (Jaberzadeh et al., 2013). TiO₂ nanomaterials are photocatalytic, which can stimulate the redox reaction and lead to hydroxide and superoxide radicals. However, a significant impact of TiO₂ nanomaterials was observed in the chloroplasts of the plant Spinacia oleracea, regulating the photochemical reaction (Hong et al., 2005).

Moringa oleifera leaf extract-derived silver nanoparticles when applied to the wheat plant's trifoliate stage, can significantly improve morphological growth under heat stress (Iqbal et al., 2019). Under the stress of submergence, silver nanoparticle-treated soybean plants are believed to encounter reduced oxygen deprivation stress compared to untreated soybean. The enhanced growth in silver nanoparticle-treated soybean plants during flooding is mainly due to the downregulation of the pyruvate decarboxylase 2 and alcohol dehydrogenase 1 genes (Mustafa et al., 2015). In addition to that, zinc oxide nanoparticles can significantly increase the germination of soybean seeds under water stress (Sedghi et al., 2013). Upregulation of antioxidant enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase is attributed to nanoparticles' application under stressed conditions (Laware and Raskar, 2014).

4.1.2. Horticulture crops

Focusing on horticultural crops, resistance against abiotic stresses is crucial as their market value is comparatively higher than the field crops. They are the source of various nutrients like carbohydrates, minerals, and fiber (Shannon and Grieve, 1998). Abiotic stresses hamper the yield and worsen the quality triggering physiological, morphological, and biochemical changes, which lead to the change in nutraceutical value or visual appearance (Rao et al., 2016). In plants, including horticultural crops, various minerals are considered essential microelements for proper physiological responses, but they are sometimes insufficiently found in the soil. For instance, iron is available in Fe³⁺ form in the soil has high pH, and the soil becomes deficient in the Fe²⁺ form of iron, causing iron deficiencies (Rui et al., 2016). To address this mineral deficiency in the soil, nanoparticles can be employed to address this mineral deficiency. Due to faster translocation and low wastage of nanoparticle-based fertilizers into the plants, their usage is widely accepted (Zahedi et al., 2019). Nanocomposites, including macro and micronutrients, are formulated using nanotechnological techniques to have desirable properties that help prevent nutrient leaching from the water and soil (Barrios et al., 2016). Nanoparticles can quickly enter the cells and bind with the carrier proteins and stimulate nutrient delivery through endocytosis, ion channels, or aquaporins (Rico et al., 2011).

Among various metallic oxides, iron oxide nanoparticles are also available in nature in the form of nanocrystals of maghemite (Fe₂O₃) and magnetite (Fe₃O₄). Additionally, magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticle has the potential to absorb various toxic heavy metals like cadmium. This nanoparticle's cadmium removal activity was demonstrated in tomato plants during heavy metal contamination (Rahmatizadeh et al., 2019).

Apart from iron nanoparticles, Si nanoparticles showed promising results on morphological and physiological traits of basil plants exposed to salinity stress (Kalteh et al., 2018). When the salt-affected Basil plant is treated with silicon nanoparticles, it causes a significant rise in proline and chlorophyll concentration and induces mitigation against salinity stress. Application of SiO₂ nanoparticles in tomato plants under salt toxicity resulted in enhanced germination of seeds and activated antioxidant response for stress mitigation (Haghighi and Pourkhaloee, 2013).

In fruit crops like strawberries, nanomaterials can be directly sprayed on the plants. The application of nanoparticles in grapes (Sabir et al., 2014) and strawberry plants (Zahedi et al., 2019) was reported to decrease the lethal effects of alkalinity and salinity fluctuation, respectively. Fruit crops treated with nanoparticles are comparatively vigorous and can withstand abiotic stress while maintaining fruit quality (Zahedi et al., 2020). Selenium nanoparticles can improve salinity tolerance in strawberry plants and subsequently increase the yield (Zahedi et al., 2019). A follicular spray of selenium nanoparticles in pomegranate under drought stress prevents the fruits from cracking (Zahedi et al., 2020). Water-soluble carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) can promote seed germination in lettuce under salt stress. Carbon nanoparticles can restrict primary root elongation but promote chlorophyll accumulation and lateral root growth at high salinity conditions (Baz et al., 2020).

Although most plant species have their defense system to cope with adverse environmental conditions, the defense mechanism sometimes initiates very late. Hence, the plants should be assisted by applying various stimulators like nanostructured materials (Brown and Saa, 2015). Therefore, the reclamation effects of various nanoparticles against abiotic stresses are presented in Table 3.

4.2. Mitigation of biotic stresses using biologically synthesized nanostructured materials and their valorized products

4.2.1. Field crops

Conservation and improvement of crops can be achieved by plant breeding, applying pesticides, and ensuring regular sanitation. However, the quality and total crop yield are restricted due to pathogens/pest infestation. Diseases in plants are mainly caused by bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and fungi resulting in economic loss, reduced production, and crop quality (Servin et al., 2015). Hence, the optimization of crop yield requires extreme usage of traditional crop management methods. The traditional methods are quite expensive, and the crop tends to develop gradual resistance with time. In this context, antimicrobial properties associated with nanoparticles are employed to suppress pathogens and improve crop yield and quality. The antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles are attributed to specific mechanisms (Lemire et al., 2013, Zeng et al., 2007). Nanoparticles can alter the functional membrane protein of the pathogen and regulate cell permeability by liberating toxic ions while assisting nutrient uptake by the plants. They also cause genotoxicity and oxidative damage to pathogens as they interact with pathogenic DNA. As the nanoparticles enter the microbial cells, they tend to produce reactive oxygen species, oxidizing the macromolecules of bacterial cells (Musee et al., 2011). Nanomaterials such as titanium oxide NP, silver NP, single-walled carbon nanotubes, and fullerene C60 NP exhibit antibacterial properties in bacterial monoculture (Morones et al. 2005, Lyon et al. 2006). Therefore, the microbicidal property of nanoparticles can be utilized to mitigate biotic stresses in crop plants.

Among various pathogenic microorganisms, fungi cause numerous infectious diseases in crop plants and are highly detrimental. Cu, Ti, Si, and Zn nanoparticles possess promising antifungal properties and thus prevent fungal attacks. When two different rice varieties, such as Mongolian (susceptible to fungal infestation) and fungus-resistant Nongda 18, were treated with Si nanoparticles, they showed inhibitory action against a fungal pathogen, M. grisea (Dubey et al. 2018). It has been suggested that ZnO nanoparticles are comparatively more advantageous than Ag nanoparticles in treating fungal pathogens, Fusarium graminearum, and suppressing crop diseases (Dimkpa et al., 2013). Chitosan-based nanostructured materials are widely used to control fungal diseases across the globe. The diverse characteristics of the chitosan nanostructures include high permeability, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness, and non-toxic nature. Under in vitro conditions, chitosan nanoparticles showed antifungal property against various phytopathogenic fungi. The chitosan-based nanoparticle was examined for suppressing the fungal pathogen, Pyricularia grisea, causing leaf blast disease in rice plants, and showed a significant result in suppressing the devastating fungus (Manikandan and Sathiyabama, 2016). Similarly, bio-fabricated silver nanoparticles using Serratia sp. (bacterium) were scrutinized for their effectiveness against spot blotch disease in wheat. The biosynthesized AgNPs showed antifungal properties against the fungal pathogen Bipolaris sorokiniana and induce lignin deposition in vascular bundles of wheat (Mishra et al., 2014). Biologically synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles, using extracts of olive leave, red tomato, and chamomile flower, showed promising results in controlling bacterial phytopathogen causing leaf blight disease of rice plants (Ogunyemi et al.,2019). Park et al. (2006) reported the antimicrobial activity of silica-silver nanosized particles against various phytopathogens such as Colletotrichum sp, Pythium sp, Xanthomonas compestris, and Pseudomonas syringae. Additionally, this formulation can efficiently control powdery mildew disease of pumpkin at greenhouse and field conditions. Likewise, silver nanoparticle-treated chickpeas are better equipped to withstand collar rot disease in greenhouse conditions (Mishra et al., 2017). It has also been reported that Al₂O₃, ZnO, and silver nanoparticles are effective against phytopathogenic nematodes viz. Caenorhabditis elegans, but the nematode larvae's mortality rate depends on the nanoparticle concentration and exposure time (Wang et al. 2009).

4.2.2. Horticulture crops

The application of nanoparticles in agriculture can control biological agents like phytopathogens and pests while uplifting the agricultural economy. The silver nanoparticle's inhibitory action to prevent powdery mildew in cucumber and pumpkin was investigated under field conditions. It was suggested that the inhibition is attributed to the accumulation of silver in the fungal hyphae, which disrupts the fungal cell (Servin et al., 2015). Comprehensive studies were conducted to investigate the inhibitory effect of silver NP in controlling gray mold disease in strawberries (Moussa et al., 2013) and Pseudomonas syringae infestation in tomatoes (Chu et al., 2012). Antifungal efficacy of copper-chitosan NP against Fusarium oxysporum and Alternaria solani under in-vitro conditions was reported. The formulation showed a significant result in controlling fusarium wilt and early blight disease in tomato plants (Saharan et al., 2015).

Copper oxide nanoparticles are also used as a fungicidal compound to protect banana, tea, cocoa, coffee, citrus fruits, and other important horticultural crops from various fungal diseases like powdery mildew and rust blight disease (Kiaune and Singhasemanon, 2011). The antifungal property of Cu-based nanoparticles on Phytophthora infestans in tomato plants suggested promising results compared to other agrochemicals (Giannousi et al., 2013). These nano coppers can prevent bacterial blight in pomegranate as they inhibit the growth of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Punicae (Mondal and Mani, 2012).

In this aspect, nano-gelled pheromones are also employed to catch Bactrocera dorsalis, a harmful pest, thus reducing its detrimental effect without using any toxic chemicals. This nano-gell formulation restricts the process of evaporation and induces the release of pheromones, which enables the transportation of various fruits like guava without freezing (Vargas et al., 2009). Nano-gelled pheromones are also used to entrap the fruit flies, when placed on the water surface, they attract the fruit flies and entrap them in the water (Bhagat et al., 2013). Therefore, it is evident that nanostructured materials under stressed conditions can significantly stimulate the plants' defense system. The role of various nanoparticles for biotic stress mitigation is presented below (Table 4).

4.3. Mitigation of multiple stresses using valorized products

4.3.1. Field crops

Stress management in crop plants using manganese (Mn) nanoparticles have been scrutinized to reduce the adverse effects caused by harsh temperature, salinity, and drought (Ye et al., 2019). The result showed that Mn NPs help the crops overcome different abiotic stresses with high efficiency and reduce toxicity compared to other ionic counterparts. Also, the effect of TiO₂ nanoparticles (NPs) on the physiological responses of chickpea (Cicer arietimun L.) was studied under cold sensitivity (Mohammadi et al., 2014). As the plants were treated with TiO₂ NPs under temperature stress, it showed a significant decrease in electrolyte leakage index, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) level, and malonaldehyde (MDA) concentration compared to control plants. These physiological changes allow the plant to withstand cold stress.

Nanomaterials such as silica NP has been successfully demonstrated to transfer targeted genes into various cells (Torney 2009). Therefore, they can be deployed to formulate many insect repellants, pesticides, and insecticides (Barik et al. 2008). Hollow silica NP loaded with pesticide, validamycin, can ensure the chemicals’-controlled release (Liu et al. 2006). Besides, nano alumina is also used as an insect repellent against Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) and S. oryzae L in stored food items (Stadler et al. 2010).

Underwater deficit condition nano TiO₂ was investigated to activate the fava bean defense mechanism (Vicia faba L.) (Khan et al., 2020). Application of nTiO₂ (15 mg/l) to the stressed plants showed a significant increase in nitrate reductase (NR) activity and induced the synthesis of Nitric oxide (NO), therefore, elevating the process of the enzymatic and non-enzymatic defense mechanism of the plants. It can also suppress electrolyte loss, lipid peroxidation, and the generation of H₂O₂. TiO₂ nanoparticles, along with NO, can enhance osmolyte accumulation and assist the plants in maintaining osmotic balance.

4.3.2. Horticulture crops

During various abiotic pressures such as drought, salinity fluctuation, heavy metal contamination, and thermal stress, one of the major responses by the plants are the synthesis of reactive oxygen species-singlet oxygen, superoxide ions, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide, leading to severe damage to the cells and organelles. To alleviate the damage, plants tend to develop a complex antioxidant mechanism for maintaining homeostasis. Application of exogenous Si has been observed to induce the stress tolerance ability of the plant by regulating ROS generation and decreasing the uptake of various toxic ions such as Na, in stressful conditions. Another report suggested that the application of fullerene and nano-silica on cucumber leaves reduces the uptake and toxicity of metalloids during exposure (Guo et al., 2019). The plants showed a significant difference in disease resistance at a different level of nanomaterial application.

The effect of silica NPs in enhancing the growth and yield of cucumber plants under salinity stress and water deficit condition was assessed (Alsaeedi et al., 2019). It has been concluded that Si NPs can improve the morphological growth and overall productivity of cucumbers regardless of the quantity of water supplied. During salinity stress and water deficit conditions, a high concentration of silicon in the leaves helps regulate water loss through transpiration. Moreover, a high level of K⁺ ion present in cucumber roots helps to withstand the abiotic stresses and regulate the osmotic concentration. SiNPs also help control the plants' stomatal opening and induce their adaptability against salt toxicity and drought.

Rapid growth in the nanotechnology sector through the abundant use of metallic nanoparticles in a wide range of consumer/antibacterial products and industrial applications lead to the inevitable discharge of these NPs into aquatic environments, and waste streams created concerns about potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems’ safety, animal and plant health (Bone et al., 2015, Jiang et al., 2017). Studying the impact of emerging pollutants such as nanoparticles is necessary to identify their adverse effects. Several manufactured nanomaterials (NM) are being used in consumer products, and exposure modeling predicts releases of ng to low µg/l levels of NMs into surface waters (Handy et al., 2011). The exposure of manufactured NMs to aquatic ecosystems and consequently to fish is inevitable. There is a risk of exposure to aquatic organisms to silver nanoparticles from municipal and industrial wastewater discharges. The manufactured NMs are less toxic compared to some traditional dissolved metals. Bruneau (2016) investigated the fate, the bioavailability of AgNPs, and their harmful effects on fish in the presence of municipal effluents as AgNPs in wastewater and their bioavailability to fish. The acute toxicity data suggest that the lethal and sublethal concentrations for many NMs are in the ranges of mg/l and 100 µg to 1 mg/l respectively (Handy et al., 2011).

Kumar et al. (2018c, d) have successfully demonstrated that the AChE activities were inhibited on exposure to contamination to fishes by the stressor group (Pb and high-temperature exposure group) and supplemented group of AgNP at 1 mg/kg. Similarly, the two mg SeNPs / kg diet induces immunosuppression with a negative effect on growth performance, antioxidative status, and innate immune responses (Kumar et al. 2017a, 2018a, b). Ashouri et al (2015) have reported that a one mg nano-Se per kg diet improved common carp growth but 2 mg/kg showed toxicity.

A moderate level of selenium enrichment (~4 mg/kg dry matter) influences the rearing efficiency of fish larvae, but higher dosages could cause adverse effects (Juhasz et al 2017). Se NP exhibited strong toxicity for Medaka approximately five-fold difference in terms of LC50 compared to selenite due to hyper-accumulation of Se in the liver and oxidative stress (Li et al 2008). Significant improvements were observed in survival, growth, digestive enzyme activities, concentrations of bio-chemical constituents and total and differential haemocytes count of prawns fed with 20 mg Cu-NPs (200 nm)/kg supplemented feed but 40–80 mg Cu-NPs/kg supplemented feed showed negative performance of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Muralisankar et al 2016).

Martin et al. (2017) have found that exposure to the high concentration of AgNPs for a long duration considerably increased lipid peroxidation in the gill tissue of yellow perch (Perca flavescens). Forouhar et al. (2019) have examined the effects of AgNPs on hematological, biochemical, and gonad histopathological indices of male goldfish, which showed that a single dose of a slight amount of silver nanoparticles could enhance the shrimp immune system's response without toxic effects in healthy shrimps. Abbas et al. (2019) have demonstrated that biochar can be used effectively to prevent the bioaccumulation and subsequent trophic level transfer of Ag nano-pollutant in the environment. The novel, innovative, and responsible nanotechnology development should continue, with potential benefits for aquaculture, culture-based fisheries, and fish health diagnostics.

Biologically synthesized nanostructured materials have been used as therapeutic agents and diagnostic in the human medical field. However, their application in crops, livestock, aquaculture, and fisheries is still relatively new. The present review focused on the current status and recent advances in innovative methods for synthesizing nanostructured materials using plants, animals, and fisheries wastes and their valorization to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses, for nutrient delivery, antimicrobial agents, and tools in agriculture. With continued exploration and refinement in nanobiotechnological interventions, nanostructured materials could play a significant role in crops, animal, and fish production. A variety of nanostructured materials can very well be prepared using crop plantation biomass residues, animal discards, fisheries wastes, and consequently addressing the environmental issue. This may help control environmental pollution through crop, animal, and fish solid waste management and control the different diseases. Nanotechnology research in the fields of crop plants, and animal and fish production are still in its primitive stage, but encouraging results from nanobioremedial, antimicrobial, nutritional, and reproductive studies drive further investigation. This review will strengthen advanced research on nanotechnological interventions for achieving nanobioremedial, antimicrobial, nutritional, climate-smart, and stress-resilient agriculture.

Authors’ Statements and declarations

Ethical approval

We hereby declare that the manuscript is original work by the authors and has not been submitted for publication elsewhere. We further certify that proper citations to the previously reported work have been given and no data/table/figures have been quoted verbatim from other publications without giving due acknowledgments and without the permission of the author(s).

Consent to participate

Not applicable

Consent to publish

The consent of all the authors of this article has been obtained for submitting the article to the Journal

Author Contributions

Author 1: Kishore Kumar Krishnani: Conceptualization, Data curation, original draft preparation, review, and final editing of the manuscript.

Author 2: Veera Mallu Boddu: Checking of similarity index using software, editing of the manuscript, Inputs related to nanostructured materials

Author 3: Narinder Kumar Chadha: Inputs related to fisheries, Manuscript editing.

Author 4: Puja Chakraborty: Arrangement of manuscript and reference as per the Journals guidelines, checking of the manuscript for reducing similarity index, inputs related to nanostructured materials.

Author 5: Jitendra Kumar: Editing of the manuscript, Inputs related to horticultural crops.

Author 6: Gopal Krishna: Inputs related to animal wastes: Manuscript Editing

Author 7: Himanshu Pathak: Inputs related to crop plants, editing of the manuscript.

Funding

ICAR-CIFE is gratefully acknowledged for funding the Institute project.

Competing Interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Code availability

Not applicable

Data availability statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

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Table 1: Agricultural waste materials used in synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their applications in mitigation of abiotic and biotic stresses

Waste / material used	NPs and Supplemented material	Function	References
Peel extract of Annona squamosal	AgNPs	Antioxidant	Kumar et al. 2012
Citrus	AgNPs + Cellulose	Antibacterial activity Free radicals scavenger Bioremediation	Ali et al. 2017
AgNPs	Fish feed formulated with AgNPs	Mitigation of abiotic stresses in fish	Kumar et al. 2018 (c,d)
Seaweed Enteromorpha compressa	AgNPs	Antimicrobial and anticancerous	Ramkumar et al. 2017
Lippia citriodora	AgNPs	Antimicrobial	Elemike et al. 2017
Wheat bran xylan	AgNPs	Free radical scavenging activity	Harish et al. 2015
Orange (Citrus sinensis) waste	AgNPs	Antimicrobial activity	de Barros et al. 2018
Cacao extract	AgNPs + Biomolecules	Antimicrobial activity	Chowdhury et al. 2016
Outer peel of Pisum sativum	AgNPs	Biomedical	Patra et al. 2019
--	AgNPs+Wetland plants	TN and TP removals	Cao et al. 2019
Coconut shell	AgNPs	Antibacterial	Sinsinwar et al. et al. 2018
Citrus peel Kinnow peel extract	AgNPs	Biomedical	Naj et al. 2017
Lychee fruit (peel)	AgNPs + Antibiotics	Antibacterial	Perveen et al. 2018
Ephedra Procera	AgNPs	Antimicrobial antioxidant agents	Nasar et al 2019
Cochineal dye and Pomegranate peel Extract	AgNPs	--	Goudarzi et al. 2016
Watermelon rind	AgNPs	Antibacterial, antioxidant	Patra et al. 2016
Plants leaf extracts	AgNPs	Therapeutic agent against A. hydrophila	Mahanty et al. 2013
Cell extracts of cyanobacterium Anabaena doliolum	Ag NPs	Antimicrobial and antitumor activities	Singh et al 2014
Aqueous extract of the fish scales	Ag NPs	Reduction of aromatic nitro compounds	Sinha et al 2014
Fish gut of Lobeo rohita	Ag NPs	Disease control	Jha and Prasad 2014
Wasted cow bones	Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles	Biomedical	Amna et al. (2018)

Table 2: Agricultural waste materials used in synthesis of other metallic nanoparticles and nanostructured materials and their applications in mitigation of abiotic and biotic stresses

Nanostructured material	Waste / Material used	Supplemented with	Function	References
Zinc	Fish waste	Fish Feed formulated with ZnNPs	Mitigation of Multiple abiotic stresses	Kumar et al. 2017b,c, 2018 e,f,g, 2019
Selenium	Fish waste	Fish Feed formulated with SeNPs	Mitigation of Multiple abiotic stresses	Kumar et al. 2017a, 2018 a,b
Silver	Silver ions	Zeolite	Ammonia removal, Bactericidal	Krishnani et al. 2012
Silver and gold	Biomolecules from grape pomace (Vitis vinifera)	Ag and Au NPs as such	--	González-Ballesteros et al. 2018
Conducting polymers and Nanowire	Polypyrrol Polyaniline	Conducting polymers and Pd thin films	Cr(VI) detoxification Bactericidal	Krishnani et al. 2014
Silver	Silver ions	Elastin like biopolymer	Bactericidal activity	Krishnani et al. 2012
Ag and Au	Mangosteen pericarp waste extract	Ag and Au NPs	Pharmaceutical, biomedical	Park et al. 2017
Ag and Au	Aq. leaf extract of Mussaenda glabrata	Ag and Au NPs	Antibacterial Dye and 4-nitrophenol degradation	Francis et al. (2017)
Nano-selenium	Spirulina polysaccharides	Se NPs	Chemotherapeutic agent	Yang et al. 2012
Ag and Au	Bio-waste extract of Trapa natans.	Au-AgNPs composites	Biomedical	Ahmad et al. 2019
Se	Vitis vinifera (raisin) fruit	Se NPs	Pharmacological	Sharma et al. 2014
Apatite Powder	Crab shells	Apatite nanoparticles	Drug delivery	Bhattacharjee et al. 2019
AuNPs	Extract of jellyfish and Skate cartilage	AuNPs	Drug delivery	Ahn et al. 2018
Micro/nanoparticles of chitosan	Shrimp shells	Micro/nanoparticles of chitosan	Cr(VI) detoxification	Dima et al. 2015
Ag and Au	Egg shell of Anas platyrhynchos and Fish scales	Ag and Au	Removal of hazardous dyes	Sinha and Ahmaruzzaman 2015a
Ag and Au	Fish scales extract of Labeo rohita.	Au and Au-Ag core shell nanostructures	Removal of hazardous dyes	Sinha and Ahmaruzzaman 2015b
ZnO nanoparticles	Goat slaughter waste	ZnO NPs	Controlling pollution	Jha and Prasad 2016

Table 3: Application of Nanoparticles in Crop plants for abiotic stress mitigation

Type of abiotic stress	Nanoparticles used	Field Crops	Effect observed	References
Salt stress	Nitrous oxide coated with chitosan nanoparticle	Maize	Resulted in a higher leaf S-nitrosothiols content	Oliveira et al., 2016
Drought and Salinity	Zn nanoparticles fertilizers	Wheat	Reduce heavy metal toxicity such as Cd toxicity	Baybordi, 2005
Drought	Silver nanoparticles	Lentil	Enhanced germination root length and increased weight of the lentil seeds.	Hojjat, and Ganjali, 2016.
Salinity	Nano ZnO and Fe ₃O₄	Moringa peregrina	Reduced Na+ and Cl- contents and increased P, N, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn, Fe concentration	Soliman et al., 2015
Flooding	Nano Al2O₃	Soybean	Stimulate energy metabolism and improved growth	Mustafa et al., 2015
Drought	NanoTiO₂, nano-SiO₂	Cotton plants	Increased pigmentation, total phenolics, total soluble sugars, concentration of soluble proteins, proline and antioxidant content	Singh and Lee., 2016
Salt stress	Selenium nanoparticles	Barley	Increase in total phenols, and significant reduction of malondialdehyde (a marker for the ROS-mediated cell membrane damage)	Habibi and Aleyasin, 2020.
Type of abiotic stress	Nanoparticles used	Horticultural crops	Effect observed	References
Drought stress	ZnO nanoparticles	Cicer arietinum L (Chickpea)	Enhanced seed germination and promote seedling growth	Cakmak, 2008
Cold stress	TiO₂ nanoparticles	Cicer arietinum L (Chickpea)	Reduced malondialdehyde and electrolyte leakage index (ELI)	Mohammadi et al., 2013
Drought	Nano- TiO₂	Borago officinalis L	Increased photosynthetic efficiency	Akbari et al., 2014
Salinity stress and water deficit condition	Silica nanoparticle	Cucumber	High concentration of silicon found in cucumber leaf regulates water loss through transpiration.	Alsaeedi et al., 2019
Salinity stress	Fe nanoparticle	Grape	Iron nanoparticles aong with K silicate can significantly increase total protein content and free prolin level and also influence enzymatic antioxidant activity thus lowers hydrogen peroxide concentration.	Mozafari. and Ghaderi, 2018
Drought	Fullerenol nanoparticle	Sugar Beets	Fullerenol nanoparticles act as an intracellular binder of water while creating an additional water reserve, thus, enabling adaptation to drought stress.	Borišev et al., 2016

Table 4: Application of nanoparticles in agricultural crops for biotic stress mitigation

Type of biotic stress	Crop type	Nanoparticles used	Effect	References
Rice blast disease (Magnaporthe grisea)	Rice	Silver NP	Effectively reduce the severity of the disease	Jo et al. (2009)
Leaf spot disease (X. campestris pv. Phaseoli)	Mung	Nano copper	Effective reduction in bacterial disease	Rani et al. (2015).
Fusarium oxysporum Aspergillus niger	Maize	Silicon NP	Showed significantly higher resistance	Suriyaprabha et al. (2013)
Pyricularia grisea	Finger millet	Copper- chitosan NP	Considerable increase in defensive enzyme activity and suppression of blast disease	Sathiyabama et al. (2018)
Botrytis cinereal (Preharvest preservation of strawberry)	Strawberry	ZnO NP	Significant delay in spoilage of strawberry when the ZnO NP was applied in the field	Luksiene et al. (2020)
Spodoptera littoralis	Tomato	Nano-silica	Nano-silica affects the feeding preference of Spodoptera littoralis, thus increasing the resistance of tomato plants.	El-Bendary and El-Helaly. (2013)
Root-Kot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)	Tomato	Selenium NP	Effecting the physiological and morphological parameters of the parasites	Udalova et al. (2018)

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Nanostructured Materials from Plant, Animal, and Fisheries Wastes: Potential and Valorization for Application in Agriculture

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Circular Economy For The Synthesis Of Metallic Nanoparticles

3. Valorization Of Biologically Synthesized Nanostructured Materials For Applications In Fisheries And Animal Husbandry

4. Valorization Of Biologically Synthesized Nanostructured Materials For Applications In The Field And Horticultural Crops

5. Toxicity Of Nanostructured Materials

6. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Tables

Status:

Version 1