As earlier mentioned, the drug abusers were the target population for this study, therefore it was important to know their demographic profile in order to have a generic knowledge of what is attainable. Table 2 distinctively shows the demographic profile in terms of the occupational status, educational status, sex, age and marital status. In the occupational status section, the respondents were mostly students, which was followed by civil servant and unemployed. Majority of these students were educated to the secondary and diploma level. A great number of respondents were in the university or graduate. This explains why so many sociological researches (Afolabi et al., 2012; Adegboro et al., 2014; Makanjuola et al., 2014) have been conducted in schools since students are the most vulnerable groups in drug abuse. The male gender was more than the female (3:1), implying that in a population of drug abusers, there is a ratio of 3 males to 1 female actively abusing drugs in the northern region from this study. This was previously observed by Saad et al. (2002) in Borno state, where the involvement of female in drug abuse was referred to as a new phenomenon. The rate of abuse of drugs amongst the population is not only restricted to the male gender, the females are abusing drugs too whether concealed or open. Stigmatization has made that of the female not to be pronounced. During the administration of the questionnaire in some study areas, some female drug abuser declined by deliberate refusal or denying involvement with substances of abuse. In regions were the farm works are done females, substance abuse is a norm. UNODC report of Nigeria in 2018, stated that out of every four person that abuse drug, one is a female. Ordinary, it would have been thought that males are the highest consumer of drugs of abuse because of the hard jobs they engage in but there are so many reasons why people abuse drugs, examples are: feeling an emotional void, to make high, boosting activity, e.tc. Respondents in age class 25–29 were the major substance consumers, followed by age class 20–24 and 30–34. All in the middle class, the young adults, and the labour force. A large number of respondents in these age classes were single and most of them were married. This calls for concern. These age classes are the power house of any nation. This also agrees with UNODC report, that drug use was prevalent among age 25–39 (UNODC, 2018).
A total number of 70 drugs and substances were reported on Table 2. Out of which 4 (5.71%) were traditional drugs, 25 (35.71%) prescription drugs and 41 (58.57%) NPS. This information is a clear indication of the gradual shift of substance abuse from traditional drugs to prescription drugs and then NPS. Once a well-known drug of abuse is banned, NPS emerge in the drug market to replace it. In the case of cannabis, synthetic cannabinoid under disguised names ‘spice and herbal drugs’ were used as replacement (Uchiyama et al., 2010; Schneir et al., 2011). These synthetic cannabinoids could have the same or even more psychoactive potential as cannabis. In 2014, UNODC (United Nation Office on Drugs and Crime) stated that the number of NPS controlled nationally was 234 but within a space of 18 months, NPS rose from 251 (July, 2012) to 348 (December, 2013) (UNODC, 2014). This implies that about 110 NPS were not controlled and drug users had free access to these drugs. In a recent research conducted on accessing the occurrence, pattern and effects of nonconventional use of substances, the following nonconventional substances were identified whitish end of lizard dung, hydrogen sulphide gas (sewer gas) (Aliyu et al., 2016). Also the following NPS and non-conventional substances have been previously identified- gutter water, monkey tail, lacasera drink mixed with ‘tom-tom’, whitish part of lizard dung, dry human feces, dry cassava and pawpaw leaves and many more (Dumbili et al., 2021).
The commonest abused traditional drug is cannabis (83.7%) as shown on Table 3. Cannabis remains the most abused and trafficked drug worldwide. This could be because it is cheap and easily cultivated as compared to other drugs (UNODC, 2016). A few respondents abuse cocaine (8.31%) and heroin (7.6%), these drugs are not readily available, they are imported. For prescription drugs, cough syrup (30.1%) was the leading drug, followed by tramadol (25.2%) and rohypnol (23.8%). Three million bottles of benylin cough syrup were seized in two northwest states (Jigawa and Kano state) in 2008 (Akannam, 2008). Interestingly in this class, is the abuse of paracetamol, a pain reliever, 9.57% of respondent abuse paraetamol to get high and they do this by sniffing the powdered form. There has been no record on paracetamol by itself causing high, it is most likely the respondents adulterate paracetamol with stimulants inorder to get high. Paracetamol has only been reported to be toxic when consumed in large quantity (Dear and Bateman, 2020). The ability to cause high could be attributed to quantity or combination with other stimulant.
This study suggested that solution (45.2%) is the most abused NPS on the street in the northern region, followed by madaran sukudaye (14%) and cow dung (13.4%). These substances have been mentioned in a few literatures to be prevalent in the study area (Owalude and Tella, 2008; Bassi et al., 2017; Adenuga and Okeshola, 2018; Mamman et al., 2014; Haruna et al., 2018). Madaran sukudaye is a local drink made with formalin. Solution is a glue that is inhaled by drug abusers inorder to get high. For cow dung, no documented report, but the abuse of lizard dung and tail, toilet effluent, gutter has been reported in the media. This was the observation made by Jatau et al. (2021) that most information about drugs of abuse in Nigeria is presented in the media (electronic and online). This makes it difficult to write about them since they are not peer-reviewed.
These implication includes the health and socio-economic impact. The health implication that have been reported due to addictive usage of drugs/substance of abuse include: cardiovascular disease, stroke, cancer, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, lung disease, mental disorders (NIDA, 2010). Daily intake of drugs affect the normal functioning of the brain. Once this occur, it is difficult to attain a reversal but in most cases rehabilitation is applied. It is important to note that all the drug classes were taken on a daily frequency, most especially the prescription drugs. The question now is, if these drugs are prescription drugs and should only be sold with evidence of doctor’s report, how do abusers get free access to them? The likely explanation to this could be illegal transaction between the pharmacist and the abuser or illegal or unaccredited laboratory producing these drugs and thereby making it available to the abusers.
In the case of traditional drugs, cannabis is consumed on a daily basis because it is cheap, easily assessed, cultivated and locally produced. Although these drugs are controlled, NPS are not controlled in Nigeria, as there is no national law enforcing its seizure and most of these NPS have not been identified, hence not documented. This is an area to be looked at effectively and more research should be tilted towards NPS in Nigeria, since its abuse is rapidly growing considering the number of NPS realized on the streets and the frequency of intake. This study is also to draw the attention of the law enforcement agency on the prevalence of NPS and the need to take necessary actions.
The streets are the harbour of traditional drugs and NPS while for prescription drug, pharmacy was leading place of purchase. As earlier discussed, if the pharmacy, which is supposed to be restricted in its sales of drug is not, there is need for reviewing of their policies.
Also for traditional drugs and NPS, apart from enforcing law and order, there should be sensitisation on the streets.