This section describes the methodology of the C5a project, which forms the conceptual and empirical basis for the paper, and the background of the cases included in the C5a project.
3.1. Methodology
The C5a is a collaborative and transdisciplinary project with eight practice partners in six countries (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom), two consultancies and one university (C5a 2022a). Its objective is to develop a Cloud to Coast framework for better management of flood risks (C5a 2019). It also involves seven supporting NSR projects2 to draw on lessons for climate governance (C5a 2022b). The project was implemented from January 2019 until June 2022.
The focus in the C5a was on supporting Case Study Leads (CSLs) with seven case studies to test and experiment with the Cloud to Coast framework in different constituent systems, including coastal, urban, river, and estuary and/or infrastructure networks. The project involves collecting and analysing different inputs/data for the framework development, initiating the process of synthesising the project results through transnational comparisons that inform in identifying the barriers and enablers for applying the framework and developing a roadmap for practitioners for achieving climate resilient society. At the beginning of the project, a comprehensive survey was conducted to understand the physical and institutional context of the case studies and to identify case-specific challenges, barriers and opportunities regarding climate change adaptation. The knowledge co-production and exchange processes were facilitated through multiple forms of collaboration: 1) reflection workshops for each case organised by CSLs, 2) bilateral meetings to support the CSLs in translating the concept into their specific context, 3) peer-to-peer meetings and workshops among project partners, and 4) reflexive learning during the partner meetings to allow synthesise and in-depth exchange among partners. The comparative case study design enabled not only revealing the similarities and differences of the cases in applying the four pillars but also identifying possible patterns among the cases towards advancing systemic adaptation.
This knowledge co-production and exchange processes were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The implementation of C5a took place in the midst of mobility restrictions and lockdowns in 2020 and 2021, which significantly affected the processes of participation and deliberation among project partners and between CSLs and their stakeholders. However, rather than waiting for all workshops to be completed and start the cross-comparison, the project has done it in parallel and with an adapted format of smaller group discussions instead of bigger workshops and facilitated with internal workshops via virtual meetings and workshops to discuss cross-comparison, to generate learning, knowledge exchange and in-depth reflection.
3.2. Case study backgrounds
To test and experiment with systemic climate change adaptation in the C5a, seven CSLs across the NSR applied the Cloud to Coast framework in their specific context. The case studies are diverse in terms of their adaptation objectives and relevant constituent systems, as summarised in Table 1 and described below.
- Table 1 here -
3.2.1 Dordrecht City, The Netherlands
The Island of Dordrecht is vulnerable in the event of a flood because most of its residents cannot leave the Island in time (C5a 2022c). Therefore, the municipality has the ambition to create a self-reliant island in which residents act safely, and critical infrastructure remains functioning during a flood and allocates nature conservation (C5a 2022c). The initiative focuses on De Staart, a residential and industrial area located on high ground (Atelier GroenBlauw 2013), to be developed as an attractive residential-work area and a large-scale, self-sufficient shelter.
3.2.2 Klarälven River, Sweden
With its 460 kilometres length, the Klarälven River is vital for communities in the Värmland county but also poses challenges, such as flood risk, erosion, landslides and land subsidence (Göransson et al. 2021). Measures taken to minimise the river’s impact were contemplated with broader aspects such as biodiversity, hydropower production and cultural heritage, making this a complex issue (C5a 2022d). The stakeholders explored how a holistic perspective and cooperation could benefit by promoting collaboration and knowledge sharing about the impact of climate change on the whole catchment (C5a 2022d).
3.2.3 Weijerswold Floodplains, The Netherlands
In the city of Coevorden, plans to accommodate floodplains were drawn up several years ago but then reconsidered and decided that not all floodplains were needed (C5a 2022e). The Weijerswold floodplain was skipped in the plans of the regional water authority because, under the climate conditions at the time, it was not a priority; moreover, local farmers did not favour this location, expecting damages from flooding and land degradation (C5a 2022e). The stakeholders investigated the mutual benefits of storing water upstream instead of elevating the dikes downstream close to Zwolle, which is at high risk of flooding (C5a 2022e).
3.2.4 Kent County, the United Kingdom
Kent has one of the highest numbers of properties at flood risk of any local authority in England, where 15% of all households are at risk of flooding (C5a 2022f). Sea level rise and increases in winter precipitation and the frequency, duration and intensity of heavy rainfall will increase flood risk, in addition to more frequent and severe risk of flooding (C5a 2022f). Catchment partnerships have been established to better manage water systems through coordinated joint action (Environment Agency 2017). The stakeholders worked on the development of a systems approach to managing flood risk by overcoming institutional barriers to collaboration across organisations working on flood defences, nature-based solutions, and community resilience and preparedness.
3.2.5 Ringkøbing-Skjern Municipality, Denmark
Ringkøbing-Skjern, the largest municipality in Denmark, is surrounded by the North Sea, Ringkøbing Fjord and the Skjern river, which present a risk of flooding (C5a 2022g). Whilst flood risks are to be handled by landowners, the issue is that they are often unaware of the responsibility and different sources of flooding (C5a 2022g). Therefore, the case focused on engaging the municipality and landowners in the low-lying land around Ringkøbing Fjord to explore a systems approach, develop an engagement plan and support an adaptation guide (C5a 2022g).
3.2.6 The Zwin Nature Reserve, Belgium and the Netherlands
The Zwin is a Wetland of International Importance and Natura 2000 site shared by Belgium and the Netherlands. It is famous for its large variety of salt-resistant flora (C5a 2022g). Sea level rise and silting are seriously threatening the tidal marches, impacting both ecology and the drainage capacity of the Zwin area. Considerable investments have been made over the past years to extend the area and to increase its capacity to be climate resilient. The case study involved assessing the anticipated climate impacts on The Zwin, taking into account additional (or yet unknown) pressures and verifying the efficiency of current dimensions and/or infrastructure from the area (C5a 2022g).
3.2.7 Lower Saxony Mainland Coast, Germany
A continuous dike line protects the Lower Saxony mainland against flooding. In Lower Saxony, the low-lying areas are partly below the level of the mean high tide and therefore be flooded twice a day. Storm surges can lead to water levels several metres above mean high tide, and modern dikes are designed to withstand these loads. In front of approx. 50% of the coastal dikes, a foreland that is higher than the mean high tide, exist and offer additional safety for the coastal protection system (C5a 2022g). Using the example of the area of the dike board Esens-Harlingerland, the effect of the foreland in the case of failure of the coastal protection system was examined on flood propagation and the estimated damage associated with the flooding and further followed by simulations and damage assessments (C5a 2022i).
[2]These seven projects are Adaptive Flood Protection Asset Management (FAIR), Building with Nature (BWN), Flood Resilient Areas by Multi-Layer Safety (FRAMES), Blue Green Infrastructures through Social Innovation (BEGIN), Integrated Approaches to Urban Water Management and Climate Change Adaptation (CATCH), Resilient Soil and Water Resources (TOPSOIL), and Creating a New Approach to Peatland Ecosystems (CANAPE).