Demographic Characteristics
A total of 98 households with an average family size of 5 (4.9) and 5 (5.1) people with an average age of 42 (41.7) and 50.3 (50) in zone 1 and 2 respectively were surveyed. The participants were classified into three age groups: youth (18-35), middle age (36-55), and old age (56+). A total of 505 household members were counted of which 212 were children and the remaining were youths and adults. Of the children under the age of 5 years, only 84% attended school, while the other 16% remain at home. Households weekly income ranges from USD 2 to 212 with an average of USD 48.8. The household’s income was calculated per household. All the households were involved in farming. Income was earned through selling of farm and marine products (92.70%). Only 7.20% earn from a steady-generating source of income. The selected demographic characteristics discussed above will be used to determine the dietary pattern of these households.
Dietary Pattern for Households for the last 12 months
Households’ diets consisted of mainly oils/fats (100%), vegetables/crops (100%), nuts/seeds (99.00%), condiments (96.90%), fruits (95.90%), sugar-sweet beverages (94.80%), legumes (94.80%), fresh meat (80.4%), cereal/grain (78.40%), savory food (64.90%), and Sweets–food/snack (53.60%). Other food groups such as insects, non-alcohol beverages, eggs, alcoholic beverages, pre-cooked food and dairy products were also important components of diet, however, were found to be less common. Furthermore, Table 4 shows the main 13 food groups further subdivided.
Taro (94.80%) and potato (93.80%) were the two crops that predominated the households’ diets. This is often supplemented by grains such as rice (68.00%). Proteins were largely obtained from sources such as pork (73.20%), shells (71.10%), and sugary products (e.g. tea products) (78.40%). Vegetables such as dark green leafy vegetables (80.40%), beans (93.80%), tomato; salt (96.90%); coconut milk (or cream) (97.90%); ngali nut; and fruits such as pineapple were also found as components of households’ diets. The individual food items within the food groups are illustrated in Table 4 and 5 while Figure 3 presents percentage of which foods are commonly bought, sold, given by other families, or either indicating they were gathered from their gardens, bush, or marine.
Access to foods and their sources
Households did not have issue accessing certain food groups. For example, our study showed households have high access to oils/fats and condiments on a daily basis. For other food groups, households only access certain times during the week. Slightly higher than half of the households (59%) access vegetables 2 to 3 times a week. The other 44% of the household access vegetables either on a daily basis, infrequent, or never. These accessibilities are presented in figure 4a. We also found that certain food groups were accessed on certain occasions. This largely depends on their availability and affordability. For instance, food groups such as fruits, fresh meat, sea food, legumes, nuts/seeds, grain/cereals, sugar sweet beverages, and sweet-foods/snacks.
Majority of the households obtained food from their gardens, markets, small shops/school shops, bush/sea, the market, cultural/church/community events and ceremonies, livestock farms, and family and friends (Figure 4b). White roots and tubers, vegetables, and fruits were predominately sourced from their gardens. However, in events where harvest was not ready or damaged by extreme weather events (e.g. cyclone, extended hot and rainy days), households often bought food from the markets. Legumes and nuts/seeds were mostly sourced from the bush and gardens. Grain/cereal, sugary goods, and tinned meat were obtained from the small shops, while fresh meats were obtained from the sea (e.g. fish, octopus, crabs, and squid), and livestock farms (e.g. chicken and pork).
48-hour household dietary pattern in early 2019
Meal frequency
On day one of the recall survey, households in both sites reported an average of 3 meals. That is, households have one meal in the morning (breakfast), afternoon (lunch), and evening (dinner). On day two, households in site 1 reported having an average of 2 meals per day (that is, only breakfast and dinner), while in site 2 an average of 3 meals. Overall, for the last 48-hour, households in both sites consumed an average of 3 meals per day (Table 2).
Table2 Combined meal frequency for D1, D2 and HDDS for 48-hours. Note, 0 indicates skipped, cannot recall or the interviewed person as not at home on the day of interest.
Meal Frequency
|
Variable
|
Day
|
Meals
|
Percentage
|
Mean
|
Meal per days
|
1
|
1
2
3
|
1.00
29.60
69.40
|
2.6 (3)
|
2
|
0
2
3
|
9.20
23.50
67.30
|
2.4
|
HDDS Category
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Mean
|
2-3
4-5
6-7
8
|
9
45
42
2
|
9.10
45.90
42.80
2.00
|
5
|
Most common meal ingredients within the 48-hour recall
Out of the 13 food groups examine in this study, white roots, tubers and plankton; meat, poultry, and sea food; vegetables; fruits; oils/fats; sugary products; condiments; and grain/cereal were common ingredients in households’ meal within the 48-hour reference period. Presented in Figure 5, are the most common food category from the least to the most consumed broken down from the 6 food groups identified. Among the white roots and tubers, sweet potato was the most consumed carbohydrate crop. Pork, chicken, fish, crabs, fish, octopus, squid, and tinned meat were common source of protein in households’ meals. Vegetables consumed were mostly dark green leafy vegetables such as slippery cabbage. Flour and rice were two grain/cereal food group consumed, however, rice has the highest consumption rate among participants within the last 48-hour. Condiments such as salt were also added to meals, though in small quantities. Sugary goods, in particular sugar-sweet beverages such as tea products, coffee, milo, and sugar were mostly consumed during breakfast and sometimes during dinner.
Seven food sources have been identified (Figure 6). The majority of households obtain their food from their own gardens, followed by the store, the bush/marine, the market, kustom/church/community events, livestock farms, and food given by others (cooked or fresh). Despite having their own gardens, households also purchased fresh or cooked foods from the market for their households. Market purchases were made for four reasons: gardens were not ready for harvest, not grown, damaged during extreme events such as cyclones and extended hot days, and going fishing was not feasible for other reasons.
48-hour HDDS in 2019
The HDDS for both study sites ranged from 2 to 8 food groups with an average of 5 food groups. This indicated a consumption pattern as low as 2 and high as 8 food groups per day. A typical diet, therefore, consist of five food groups including grain, white roots and tubers, plantains (100%); oils/fats (95.90%); condiments (83.70%); dark green leafy vegetables (78.60%); and meat/poultry/sea food (77.60%). In a separate analysis for each study sites, it was revealed that site 2 consumed an average of 6 food groups, while site 1 consumed an average of 5 food groups. These results suggested that 45.90% of the households in both sites were likely to satisfy their dietary needs, however, the probability of improving or declining diet is also high, while only few (9.10%) were below the WHO requirement of 4 food groups per day or facing food and nutritional insecurity. The rest of the households (46.1%) has a substantial proportion to satisfy their dietary needs and having a stable diet.
Additionally, the FCS for the 2 days shows that condiments; grain, white roots, tubers and plantains; and oil/fats had an average of 2 for the 2 days, indicating that they were consumed in all six meals. Dark green leafy vegetables, meat/poultry/sea foods, and sugary products showed an average of 1, indicating a consumption pattern of 1-2 meals a day. Other fruits, vegetables, and vitamin-A rich fruits and vegetables were the least consumed
Correlation between household demography, meals, and HDDS
A 1-tailed correlation analysis was performed to assess the link between the 48-hour dietary pattern of the households and selected demographics. The results (p = 0.05*, p = 0.01**) revealed positive and negative significant relationships between the variables (Table 3). Age of participants had a negative correlation with total dependency and family size. This means, total number of dependents (-0.313**) is high in households where majority of household heads consisted of youth and middle-age group and lower in households with older household heads. Age also have inverse significant effects (-0.265**) on the family size. That is, family size is high with decrease age and vice versa.
Results revealed a high significant relationship between the 48-hour meals and total dependency (0.236**), implying that the number of meals increases subsequently with increasing number of dependents and vice versa. Similar result was observed for income (0.174*) and meal frequency. That is, household with high income will likely to have high number of meals and less meals among low income household. Individually, income for Zone 1 demonstrated a positive link with total meals for day 2 at 0.263* and family size (0.275*) while not being reported in Table 3. In Zone 2, income was positively related to day 1 total meals (0.240*), Day 1 total food groups consumed (0.279*), and day 2 meal components (0.321*). The study found a statistically significant (0.504*) connection between HDDS and the total meal. However, no correlations were found between HDDS, age, income, total dependency, and family size.
Table 3 Correlation between dependent and independent variables
Variables
|
Income (USD)
|
HDDS
|
Total dependent (Children)
|
Family size
|
Total meal (48-hours)
|
Age of participant
|
-0.073
|
0.061
|
-0.313**
|
-0.265**
|
-0.056
|
Income (USD)
|
-
|
0.114
|
0.103
|
0.149
|
0.174*
|
HDDS
|
-
|
-
|
0.034
|
-0.049
|
0.504**
|
Total dependent (Children)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
0.591**
|
0.236**
|
Family size
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
0.215*
|
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
|
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).
|
Table 4 Main food groups and the subdivided groups for 2018
Grain, white roots and tubers, and plankton
|
%
|
Pre-cooked foods
|
Other fruit
|
%
|
Giant taro
|
40.20
|
(Optional beverages/food)
|
%
|
Water melon
|
12.40
|
Banana
|
51.50
|
Fish and chips
|
4.10
|
Pineapple
|
43.30
|
Taro
|
94.80
|
Baked fish
|
4.10
|
Cocoa
|
9.30
|
Sweet potato
|
93.80
|
Take away
|
1.00
|
Guava
|
40.20
|
Yam
|
52.60
|
BBQ fish
|
1.00
|
Orange
|
13.40
|
Chinse taro
|
56.70
|
Pop corn
|
17.50
|
Lemon
|
4.10
|
Cassava
|
70.10
|
Fish roll
|
2.10
|
Five corner
|
16.50
|
Pana
|
25.80
|
Nuts and seeds
|
Pomelo
|
4.10
|
Giant swamp taro
|
4.10
|
Ngali nut
|
91.80
|
Breadfruit
|
20.60
|
Rice
|
68.00
|
Cut nut
|
45.40
|
Sweet banana
|
21.60
|
Bun/scone/bread
|
28.90
|
Peanut
|
19.60
|
Mango
|
8.20
|
Biscuit
|
11.30
|
Terminalia kaernbachii
|
6.20
|
Malay apple
|
12.40
|
Ring cake/ball cake
|
39.20
|
Betelnut
|
8.20
|
Soursop
|
4.10
|
Banana chip
|
14.40
|
Dairy products
|
Golden apple
|
3.10
|
Cassava chips
|
2.10
|
Butter
|
3.10
|
Coconut juice
|
26.80
|
Pan-cake
|
12.40
|
Oils and fats
|
Pineapple juice
|
5.20
|
Bean cake
|
6.20
|
Coconut cream
|
97.9
|
Orange juice
|
2.10
|
Potato chips
|
5.20
|
Cooking oil (soya)
|
60.80
|
Melon juice
|
2.10
|
Taro pudding
|
7.20
|
Cooking oil (chilly)
|
5.2
|
Meat, poultry, and seafood
|
Cassava pudding
|
9.30
|
Sugary products
|
Pig
|
73.20
|
Other vitamin A-rich fruits, vegetables and roots and tubers
|
Sugarcane
|
11.30
|
Chicken
|
40.20
|
Pumpkin
|
20.60
|
Pop drink
|
32.00
|
Duck
|
2.10
|
Pawpaw
|
48.50
|
Ice block
|
26.80
|
Fish
|
100.00
|
Mango juice
|
1.00
|
Lemon tea
|
30.90
|
Mussels/.shells
|
71.10
|
Pawpaw juice
|
2.10
|
Soft drinks
|
19.60
|
Seaweeds
|
15.50
|
Other vegetables
|
Lemonade
|
4.10
|
Squid
|
13.40
|
Corn
|
20.60
|
Milo
|
3.10
|
Crabs
|
7.20
|
Eggplant
|
41.20
|
Tea products
|
78.40
|
Octopus
|
6.20
|
Cucumber
|
23.70
|
Coffee products
|
29.90
|
Lobster
|
5.20
|
Pepper
|
60.80
|
Coffee-mix
|
27.80
|
Prawn
|
1.00
|
Spring onion
|
57.70
|
Lolly
|
32.00
|
Lucas
|
29.90
|
Tomato
|
78.40
|
Gum
|
5.2
|
Sego grubs
|
36.10
|
Bean
|
93.80
|
Cream biscuit
|
12.40
|
Egg
|
Condiment
|
Twisties
|
3.10
|
Chicken egg
|
23.70
|
Salt
|
96.90
|
Cake
|
7.20
|
Dark green leafy vegetables
|
Curry powder
|
19.60
|
Ice cream
|
2.10
|
Dark green veggies
|
80.40
|
Black source
|
9.30
|
Chocolate
|
1.00
|
|
|
Chilly
|
25.80
|
Solbrew/beer
|
17.50
|
|
|
Ginger
|
30.90
|
Home-made alcohol
|
3.10
|
|
|
Onion
|
6.20
|
Hot staff
|
1.00
|
|
|
Garlic
|
10.30
|
Wine
|
1.00
|
|
|
Spices
|
10.30
|
Sugarcane juice
|
1.00
|
|
|
Corn flour
|
2.10
|
|
|
|
|
Oyster source
|
1.00
|
|
|
|
|
Sugar
|
14.40
|
|
|
|
|
Table 5 Food items that makes up the food groups: Produced or consumed in 2018
Food items
|
Freq
|
%
|
Food items
|
Freq
|
%
|
Food items
|
Freq
|
%
|
vegetables/crops
|
Fruits
|
Fresh meats
|
Giant taro
|
39
|
40.20
|
Water melon
|
12
|
12.40
|
Pig
|
71
|
73.20
|
Banana
|
50
|
51.50
|
Pineapple
|
42
|
43.30
|
Chicken
|
39
|
40.20
|
Dark green veggies
|
78
|
80.40
|
Pawpaw
|
47
|
48.50
|
Duck
|
2
|
2.10
|
Taro
|
92
|
94.80
|
Cocoa
|
9
|
9.30
|
Egg
|
Sweet potato
|
91
|
93.80
|
Guava
|
39
|
40.20
|
Chicken egg
|
23
|
23.70
|
Pumpkin
|
20
|
20.60
|
Orange
|
13
|
13.40
|
Sea foods
|
Yam
|
51
|
52.60
|
Lemon
|
4
|
4.10
|
Fish
|
97
|
100
|
Chinse taro
|
55
|
56.70
|
Five corner
|
16
|
16.50
|
Muscles/.shells
|
69
|
71.10
|
Cassava
|
68
|
70.10
|
Pomelo
|
4
|
4.10
|
Seaweeds
|
15
|
15.50
|
Tomato
|
76
|
78.40
|
Breadfruit
|
20
|
20.60
|
Squid
|
13
|
13.40
|
Pepper
|
59
|
60.80
|
Sweet banana
|
21
|
21.60
|
Crabs
|
7
|
7.20
|
Cucumber
|
23
|
23.70
|
Mango
|
8
|
8.20
|
Octopus
|
6
|
6.20
|
Corn
|
20
|
20.60
|
Malay apple
|
12
|
12.40
|
Lobster
|
5
|
5.20
|
Spring onion
|
56
|
57.70
|
Soursop
|
4
|
4.10
|
Prawn
|
1
|
1.0
|
Eggplant
|
40
|
41.20
|
Golden apple
|
3
|
3.10
|
Fats/oil
|
Sugarcane
|
11
|
11.30
|
Insects
|
Coconut cream
|
95
|
97.90
|
Pana
|
25
|
25.80
|
Lucas
|
29
|
29.90
|
Cooking oil (soya)
|
64
|
65.97
|
Giant swamp taro
|
4
|
4.10
|
Sego grubs
|
35
|
36.10
|
Sugar sweet beverages
|
Non-alcohol beverages
|
Cereal/grains
|
Tea-lipton
|
59
|
60.80
|
Coconut juice
|
26
|
26.80
|
Rice
|
66
|
68.00
|
Pop drink
|
30
|
30.90
|
Pineapple juice
|
5
|
5.20
|
Bun/scone/bread
|
28
|
28.90
|
Ice block
|
26
|
26.80
|
Sugarcane juice
|
1
|
1.00
|
Biscuit
|
11
|
11.30
|
Milk tea
|
27
|
27.80
|
Pawpaw juice
|
2
|
2.10
|
Savory
|
Lemon tea
|
30
|
30.90
|
Orange juice
|
2
|
2.10
|
Ring cake/ball cake
|
38
|
39.20
|
Tea master
|
10
|
10.30
|
Melon juice
|
2
|
2.10
|
Banana chip
|
14
|
14.40
|
Soft drinks
|
19
|
19.60
|
Mango juice
|
1
|
1.00
|
Cassava chips
|
2
|
2.10
|
Lemonade
|
4
|
4.10
|
Alcohol beverage
|
Pop corn
|
17
|
17.50
|
Coffee-mix
|
27
|
27.80
|
Solbrew/beer
|
17
|
17.50
|
Pan-cake
|
12
|
12.40
|
Milo
|
3
|
3.10
|
Home-made alcohol
|
3
|
3.10
|
Fish roll
|
2
|
2.10
|
|
|
|
Hot staff
|
1
|
1.00
|
Bean cake
|
6
|
6.20
|
Legume
|
Wine
|
1
|
1.00
|
Potato chips
|
5
|
5.20
|
Beans
|
91
|
93.80
|
Pre-cooked foods
|
Condiments
|
Sweets-foods/snacks
|
Taro pudding
|
7
|
7.20
|
Salt
|
94
|
96.90
|
Lollies
|
31
|
32.00
|
Cassava pudding
|
9
|
9.30
|
Curry powder
|
19
|
19.60
|
Gum
|
5
|
5.20
|
Fish and chips
|
4
|
4.10
|
Black source
|
9
|
9.30
|
Cream biscuit
|
12
|
12.40
|
Baked fish
|
4
|
4.10
|
Chilly
|
25
|
25.80
|
Twisties
|
3
|
3.10
|
Take away
|
1
|
1.00
|
Ginger
|
30
|
30.90
|
Cake
|
7
|
7.20
|
BBQ fish
|
1
|
1.0
|
Onion
|
6
|
6.20
|
Sugar
|
14
|
14.40
|
Nuts/seeds
|
Garlic
|
10
|
10.30
|
Ice cream
|
2
|
2.10
|
Ngali nut
|
89
|
91.80
|
Spices
|
10
|
10.30
|
Chocolate
|
1
|
1.00
|
Cut nut
|
44
|
45.4
|
Corn flour
|
2
|
2.10
|
Dairy products
|
Peanut
|
19
|
19.600
|
Oyster source
|
1
|
1.00
|
Butter
|
3
|
3.10
|
Terminalia kaernbachii
|
6
|
6.200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Betelnut
|
8
|
8.200
|
|
|
|
|
|
|