Concerns in usage of Antimicrobials on animal farms considerably rose due to the elevating prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and the way it has affected human health for a long period of time.[1].
AMR is a growing global health threat, a naturally occurring molecular process that results from the ability of microorganisms to quickly adapt to changing conditions, develop mechanisms of survival in the presence of an antibiotic through mutations, change in configuration at the active site, drug inactivation and efflux mechanisms which render antibiotics less effective[2].
The existence of vital and un-common mutations which neutralize the action of antimicrobials is inevitable in dense microbial communities and the rapid generation times allow these mutations to easily become prevalent in growing communities[3]. Additionally, the ability of bacteria to exchange mobile genetic elements enhance their capacity to adapt and resist[3].
A myriad of factors have escalated the prevalence of AMR including un-regulated usage of medicines especially antibiotics in humans, livestock and agriculture as well as inadequate access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene. AMR is a natural phenomenon; its increasing prevalence is however not. It is rather due to anthropogenic factors such as the intensive clinical and agricultural use of antimicrobials globally, changes in human lifestyle (such as, increased urbanization, migration and travel), misconceptions and malpractices regarding antimicrobial usage (AMU)[4]. AMR is particularly concerning in Africa and its impact is becoming more apparent, with health care associated infections increasing, the ongoing high burden of communicable diseases, weak and fragmented public and veterinary health systems.
The rising prevalence is predicted to have a significant impact on global health and wealth by potentially causing up to 10 million deaths each year, at a cumulative cost of $100 trillion to global economic output by 2050[3]. The World Bank Group estimated that reductions in annual global GDP due to AMR (ranging between 1.1 and 3.8%) may be comparable to the losses caused by the 2008–2009 financial crisis, with the difference that the economic damage would continue for decades and would mostly affect low and middle income countries (LMICs)[5].
The use of national action plans as an attempt to contain AMR with a One Health approach is time bound as it was estimated that by 2030, antimicrobial consumption associated with AMR would increase by 67% in livestock, by 33% in aquaculture and by 15, 32 or 202% in humans, depending on the scenario[6].
AMR surveillance, infection Prevention and control (IPC) and optimal antimicrobial prescription for use in both human and veterinary medicine are some of the ways to mitigate challenges caused by antimicrobial resistance.[7]. Additionally, the institutionalization of Antimicrobial use (AMU) as well as the reduction of antimicrobial dependence is necessary in order to achieve a sustainable use of antimicrobials[4].
Antibiotics play a crucial role in livestock production since they are both therapeutic and economic assets as well[4]. The preventive application of antimicrobials for prophylaxis as well as metaphylaxis avoids economic risks and labor costs[4]. Antimicrobials are used as feed additives which improve animal growth, feed conversion and yield.[8].
Technological innovations such as vaccination and alternatives to antimicrobials reduce reliance on antimicrobial use[4]. New technologies might not however be enough as addressed in Global action plans but rather not sufficiently developed in order to effectively replace antimicrobials[9]. Considerable investment in research and development will be needed so as to evaluate the efficiency of the new technologies meaning that these options will not be widely available in the coming years. However, such options may offer short-term solutions since we are engaged in an infectious arm’s race with microbes that always find a way to accommodate and thrive in presence of new therapeutics[4].
The vision for AMR control is currently focused on technological and biomedical innovations where the benefits are short-lived due to over dependence on antibiotics[4]. Additionally, farmers may not adopt the new alternatives, as it was the case for the live oral Lawsonia vaccine in pigs, which was not widely used despite positive results[10].
The practice of new technologies by farmers can be influenced by numerous factors according to multidisciplinary studies, for example, environmental factors such as land use and land characteristics; personal features such as age, human capital or risk preferences; economic attributes such as market intervention by regulators and costs of acquiring the technology; extension services as well as cultural and social factors including social identity, social networks and peer group influence. It is therefore clear that farmers' behavior is embedded in both biophysical and social landscapes hence decision-making processes are complex and context dependent[10].Understanding farmers' behavior while considering the systemic complexity in which it is embedded is key since several frameworks and systemic approaches have been developed with the hope that this would help design research that represents farmer's behavior more realistically and that it would lead to the development of more effective sustainable agricultural policies[11].
In this regard, our objective is to add to an innovative interdisciplinary research agenda by providing a perspective structure on strategies for regulating antimicrobial usage[4]. This perspective was inspired by how the different multidisciplinary personnel can contribute to environmental policies[4].
We discuss how knowledge about farmers' behavior and where they operate can contribute to answering central concerns for the development of policies and strategies and can provide a clear structure of AMR interventions in livestock production along the value chains[12].
Objective
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered an external factor in livestock production as it is an undesired outcome of preventive and curative antimicrobial use[4]. Our objective is to provide an innovative approach based on interdisciplinary research to develop strategies and policies that aim to mitigate AMR[4].