Alonso-Hernandez, C., Mesa-Albernas, M., and Tolosa, I. (2014). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments from the Gulf of Batabanó, Cuba. Chemosphere 94, 36–41.
Anderson, J.W., Newton, F., Hardin, J., Tukey, R.H., and Richter, K.E. (1996). Chemistry and toxicity of sediments from San Diego Bay, including a biomarker (P450 RGS) response. In Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment: Biomarkers and Risk Assessment: Fifth Volume, (ASTM International), p.
Arruti, A., Fernández-Olmo, I., and Irabien, Á. (2012). Evaluation of the urban/rural particle-bound PAH and PCB levels in the northern Spain (Cantabria region). Environ. Monit. Assess. 184, 6513–6526.
Balmer, M. (2017). Household coal use in an urban township in South Africa. J. Energy South. Afr. 18, 27–32.
Baumard, P., Budzinski, H., and Garrigues, P. (1998). PAHs in Arcachon Bay, France: origin and biomonitoring with caged organisms. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 36, 577–586.
Borja, J., Taleon, D.M., Auresenia, J., and Gallardo, S. (2005). Polychlorinated biphenyls and their biodegradation. Process Biochem. 40, 1999–2013.
Bouwman, H., Kylin, H., Sereda, B., and Bornman, R. (2012). High levels of DDT in breast milk: intake, risk, lactation duration, and involvement of gender. Environ. Pollut. 170, 63–70.
Brent, A.C., and Rogers, D.E. (2002). Establishing the propensity for dioxin formation using a plume temperature model for medical waste incinerator emissions in developing countries. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 52, 811–821.
Buah-Kwofie, A., and Humphries, M.S. (2017). The distribution of organochlorine pesticides in sediments from iSimangaliso Wetland Park: Ecological risks and implications for conservation in a biodiversity hotspot. Environ. Pollut. 229, 715–723.
Buah-Kwofie, A., Humphries, M.S., Combrink, X., and Myburgh, J.G. (2018). Accumulation of organochlorine pesticides in fat tissue of wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa. Chemosphere 195, 463–471.
Budzinski, H., Jones, I., Bellocq, J., Pierard, C., and Garrigues, P. (1997). Evaluation of sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Gironde estuary. Mar. Chem. 58, 85–97.
Byers, S.C., Mills, E.L., and Stewart, P.L. (1978). A comparison of methods of determining organic carbon in marine sediments, with suggestions for a standard method. Hydrobiologia 58, 43–47.
Caricchia, A.M., Chiavarini, S., and Pezza, M. (1999). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmospheric particulate matter in the city of Naples (Italy). Atmos. Environ. 33, 3731–3738.
Chen, S.-J., Hsieh, L.-T., and Chiu, S.-C. (2003). Characteristics of the PAH emissions from the incineration of livestock wastes with/without APCD. Environ. Int. 28, 659–668.
Chen, Y., Jia, R., and Yang, S. (2015). Distribution and Source of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Water Dissolved Phase, Suspended Particulate Matter and Sediment from Weihe River in Northwest China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 12, 14148–14163.
Clements, W., Oris, J., and Wissing, T. (1994). Accumulation and food chain transfer of fluoranthene and benzo [a] pyrene in Chironomus riparius and Lepomis macrochirus. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 26, 261–266.
Combi, T., Taniguchi, S., Figueira, R.C.L., de Mahiques, M.M., and Martins, C.C. (2013). Spatial distribution and historical input of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in sediments from a subtropical estuary (Guaratuba Bay, SW Atlantic). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 70, 247–252.
Culotta, L., De Stefano, C., Gianguzza, A., Mannino, M.R., and Orecchio, S. (2006). The PAH composition of surface sediments from Stagnone coastal lagoon, Marsala (Italy). Mar. Chem. 99, 117–127.
Darnerud, P., Lignell, S., Glynn, A., Aune, M., Törnkvist, A., and Stridsberg, M. (2010). POP levels in breast milk and maternal serum and thyroid hormone levels in mother–child pairs from Uppsala, Sweden. Environ. Int. 36, 180–187.
De, S., Perkins, M., and Dutta, S.K. (2006). Nitrate reductase gene involvement in hexachlorobiphenyl dechlorination by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. J. Hazard. Mater. 135, 350–354.
Dickhut, R., Canuel, E., Gustafson, K., Liu, K., Arzayus, K., Walker, S., Edgecombe, G., Gaylor, M., and MacDonald, E. (2000). Automotive sources of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with particulate matter in the Chesapeake Bay region. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34, 4635–4640.
Dimitriou, E., Karaouzas, I., Sarantakos, K., Zacharias, I., Bogdanos, K., and Diapoulis, A. (2008). Groundwater risk assessment at a heavily industrialised catchment and the associated impacts on a peri-urban wetland. J. Environ. Manage. 88, 526–538.
Dragan, D., Cucu-Man, S., Dirtu, A.C., Mocanu, R., Vaeck, L.V., and Covaci, A. (2006). Occurrence of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in soils and sediments from Eastern Romania. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 86, 833–842.
El-Shahawi, M., Hamza, A., Bashammakh, A., and Al-Saggaf, W. (2010). An overview on the accumulation, distribution, transformations, toxicity and analytical methods for the monitoring of persistent organic pollutants. Talanta 80, 1587–1597.
Gakuba, E., Moodley, B., Ndungu, P., and Birungi, G. (2015). Occurrence and significance of polychlorinated biphenyls in water, sediment pore water and surface sediments of Umgeni River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Environ. Monit. Assess. 187, 568.
Gao, S., Chen, J., Shen, Z., Liu, H., and Chen, Y. (2013). Seasonal and spatial distributions and possible sources of polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of Yangtze Estuary, China. Chemosphere 91, 809–816.
Gerber, R., Smit, N.J., Van Vuren, J.H., Nakayama, S.M., Yohannes, Y.B., Ikenaka, Y., Ishizuka, M., and Wepener, V. (2016). Bioaccumulation and human health risk assessment of DDT and other organochlorine pesticides in an apex aquatic predator from a premier conservation area. Sci. Total Environ. 550, 522–533.
Ghaeni, M., Pour, N.A., and Hosseini, M. (2015). Bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), mercury, methyl mercury, and arsenic in blue crab Portunus segnis from Persian Gulf. Environ. Monit. Assess. 187, 253.
Gray, I.A.R. (2004). Guide for Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Management of Insulating oil in South Africa (wearcheck.co.za).
Han, B., Lin, F., Ding, Y., and Zheng, L. (2018). Distribution characteristics, sources, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from Haizhou Bay, China. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 1–12.
Hu, D., Martinez, A., and Hornbuckle, K.C. (2011). Sedimentary records of non-Aroclor and Aroclor PCB mixtures in the Great Lakes. J. Gt. Lakes Res. 37, 359–364.
Humphries, M.S., McCarthy, T.S., and Pillay, L. (2017). Attenuation of pollution arising from acid mine drainage by a natural wetland on the Witwatersrand. South Afr. J. Sci. 113, 1–9.
Jeffrey, L. (2005). Characterization of the coal resources of South Africa. J. South. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall. 105, 95–102.
Jones, K.C., and De Voogt, P. (1999). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): state of the science. Environ. Pollut. 100, 209–221.
Jooste, S., Bollmohr, S., and Thwala, M. (2008). National Toxicity Monitoring Program: Report on Phase 3: Pilot implementation and testing of the design (Report No. N/0000/REQ1008. Resource Quality Services, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria. URL: https://www. dwa. gov. za/iwqs/water_quality/ntmp/NTMPphase3ReportV2. pdf).
Kanzari, F., Syakti, A., Asia, L., Malleret, L., Piram, A., Mille, G., and Doumenq, P. (2014). Distributions and sources of persistent organic pollutants (aliphatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, PCBs and pesticides) in surface sediments of an industrialized urban river (Huveaune), France. Sci. Total Environ. 478, 141–151.
Karlsson, K., and Viklander, M. (2008). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in water and sediment from gully pots. Water. Air. Soil Pollut. 188, 271–282.
Khim, J.S., Kannan, K., Villeneuve, D.L., Koh, C.H., and Giesy, J.P. (1999). Characterization and distribution of trace organic contaminants in sediment from Masan Bay, Korea. 1. Instrumental analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 4199–4205.
Kumar, B., Kumar, S., and Sharma, C.S. (2013). Ecotoxicological risk assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in bank sediments from along the Yamuna River in Delhi, India. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 19, 1477–1487.
Kumar, K.S., Sajwan, K.S., Richardson, J.P., and Kannan, K. (2008). Contamination profiles of heavy metals, organochlorine pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and alkylphenols in sediment and oyster collected from marsh/estuarine Savannah GA, USA. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 56, 136–149.
Li, C.-T., Zhuang, H.-K., Hsieh, L.-T., Lee, W.-J., and Tsao, M.-C. (2001). PAH emission from the incineration of three plastic wastes. Environ. Int. 27, 61–67.
Li, J., Mgonella, M.K., Bzdusek, P.A., and Christensen, E.R. (2005). PCB congeners and dechlorination in sediments of Upper Sheboygan River, Wisconsin. J. Gt. Lakes Res. 31, 174–186.
Long, E., and MacDonald, D. (1998). Recommended uses of empirically derived, sediment quality guidelines for marine and estuarine ecosystems. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 4, 1019–1039.
Lv, J., Zhang, Y., Zhao, X., Zhou, C., Guo, C., Luo, Y., Meng, W., Zou, G., and Xu, J. (2015). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments of Liaohe River: levels, spatial and temporal distribution, possible sources, and inventory. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22, 4256–4264.
Mai, B.-X., Fu, J.-M., Sheng, G.-Y., Kang, Y.-H., Lin, Z., Zhang, G., Min, Y.-S., and Zeng, E.Y. (2002). Chlorinated and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in riverine and estuarine sediments from Pearl River Delta, China. Environ. Pollut. 117, 457–474.
McCarthy, T., and Venter, J. (2006a). Increasing pollution levels on the Witwatersrand recorded in the peat deposits of the Klip River wetland. South Afr. J. Sci. 102.
McCarthy, T., and Venter, J. (2006b). Increasing pollution levels on the Witwatersrand recorded in the peat deposits of the Klip River wetland. South Afr. J. Sci. 102, 27–34.
McCarthy, T., Arnold, V., Venter, J., and Ellery, W. (2007). The collapse of Johannesburg’s Klip River wetland. South Afr. J. Sci. 103, 391–397.
Mohammed, A., Peterman, P., Echols, K., Feltz, K., Tegerdine, G., Manoo, A., Maraj, D., Agard, J., and Orazio, C. (2011). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in harbor sediments from Sea Lots, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62, 1324–1332.
Naigaga, I., Kaiser, H., Muller, W., Ojok, L., Mbabazi, D., Magezi, G., and Muhumuza, E. (2011). Fish as bioindicators in aquatic environmental pollution assessment: a case study in Lake Victoria wetlands, Uganda. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts ABC 36, 918–928.
Naiker, Y., Diab, R., Zunckel, M., and Hayes, E.T. (2012). Introduction of local Air Quality Management in South Africa: overview and challenges. Environ. Sci. Policy 17, 62–71.
Nascimento, R.A., de Almeida, M., Escobar, N.C., Ferreira, S.L., Mortatti, J., and Queiroz, A.F. (2017). Sources and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organic matter in surface sediments of an estuary under petroleum activity influence, Todos os Santos Bay, Brazil. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 119, 223–230.
Nieuwoudt, C., Pieters, R., Quinn, L.P., Kylin, H., Borgen, A.R., and Bouwman, H. (2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and sediment from industrial, residential, and agricultural areas in central South Africa: An initial assessment. Soil Sediment Contam. 20, 188–204.
O’Donovan, J.V., O’Farrell, K.J., O’Mahony, P., and Buckley, J.F. (2011). Temporal trends in dioxin, furan and polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in bovine milk from farms adjacent to industrial and chemical installations over a 15 year period. Vet. J. 190, e117–e121.
Pereira, W.E., Hostettler, F.D., and Rapp, J.B. (1996). Distributions and fate of chlorinated pesticides, biomarkers and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments along a contamination gradient from a point-source in San Francisco Bay, California. Mar. Environ. Res. 41, 299–314.
Pheiffer, W., Quinn, L.P., Bouwman, H., Smit, N.J., and Pieters, R. (2018). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from a typical urban impacted river: application of a comprehensive risk assessment. Ecotoxicology 27, 336–351.
Polder, A., Venter, B., Skaare, J., and Bouwman, H. (2008). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and HBCD in bird eggs of South Africa. Chemosphere 73, 148–154.
Rainbow, P.S. (2002). Trace metal concentrations in aquatic invertebrates: why and so what? Environ. Pollut. 120, 497–507.
Rimayi, C., Chimuka, L., Odusanya, D., de Boer, J., and Weiss, J. (2016). Distribution of 2, 3, 7, 8-substituted polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in the Jukskei and Klip/Vaal catchment areas in South Africa. Chemosphere 145, 314–321.
Rimayi, C., Chimuka, L., Odusanya, D., de Boer, J., and Weiss, J.M. (2017). Source characterisation and distribution of selected PCBs, PAHs and alkyl PAHs in sediments from the Klip and Jukskei Rivers, South Africa. Environ. Monit. Assess. 189, 327.
Saldanha, G.C., Bastos, W.R., Torres, J.P.M., and Malm, O. (2010). DDT in fishes and soils of lakes from Brazilian Amazon: case study of Puruzinho Lake (Amazon, Brazil). J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 21, 306–311.
Samara, F., Tsai, C.W., and Aga, D.S. (2006). Determination of potential sources of PCBs and PBDEs in sediments of the Niagara River. Environ. Pollut. 139, 489–497.
Shi, Z., Tao, S., Pan, B., Fan, W., He, X., Zuo, Q., Wu, S., Li, B., Cao, J., and Liu, W. (2005). Contamination of rivers in Tianjin, China by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ. Pollut. 134, 97–111.
Shoeib, M., and Harner, T. (2002). Characterization and comparison of three passive air samplers for persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 4142–4151.
Sibiya, P.N. (2012). Modification, development and application of extraction methods for PAHs in sediments and water.
Sprovieri, M., Feo, M.L., Prevedello, L., Manta, D.S., Sammartino, S., Tamburrino, S., and Marsella, E. (2007). Heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of the Naples harbour (southern Italy). Chemosphere 67, 998–1009.
Thomas, P., Rahman, M.S., Khan, I.A., and Kummer, J.A. (2007). Widespread endocrine disruption and reproductive impairment in an estuarine fish population exposed to seasonal hypoxia. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 274, 2693–2702.
UNEP (2001). United Nations Environmental Program, 2001. Final Act of the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. (UNEP/POPS/CONF/4UNEP Stockholm, Sweden/Geneva, Switzerland), p.
Xing, Y., Lu, Y., Dawson, R.W., Shi, Y., Zhang, H., Wang, T., Liu, W., and Ren, H. (2005). A spatial temporal assessment of pollution from PCBs in China. Chemosphere 60, 731–739.
Yan, W., Chi, J., Wang, Z., Huang, W., and Zhang, G. (2009). Spatial and temporal distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from Daya Bay, South China. Environ. Pollut. 157, 1823–1830.
Yunker, M.B., Macdonald, R.W., Vingarzan, R., Mitchell, R.H., Goyette, D., and Sylvestre, S. (2002). PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org. Geochem. 33, 489–515.
Zhang, Z., Hong, H., Zhou, J., Huang, J., and Yu, G. (2003). Fate and assessment of persistent organic pollutants in water and sediment from Minjiang River Estuary, Southeast China. Chemosphere 52, 1423–1430.
Zhao, L., Hou, H., Zhou, Y., Xue, N., Li, H., and Li, F. (2010). Distribution and ecological risk of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in surficial sediments from Haihe River and Haihe Estuary Area, China. Chemosphere 78, 1285–1293.