Study Selection
In total, 21663 titles were retrieved through database searches and over 500 titles were screened through secondary searches. After removing duplicates, 19788 titles remained. Screening of these titles resulted in the inclusion of 2212 abstracts, 1832 of which were excluded, leaving 380 full-texts to be reviewed. Seventeen manuscripts reporting on 15 studies were retained: twelve for inclusion in the meta-analysis and three for descriptive review only. Flow of studies and reasons for exclusion are included in Figure 1.
Description of Studies
Characteristics of included studies are described in Table 1 and there was no indication of publication bias (Appendix C). Studies were conducted in the United Kingdom (n=5), United States (n=3), the Netherlands (n=2), Germany (n=2), Iran (n=1), Republic of Korea (n=1), and Australia (n=1). Eleven studies used a 2-group RCT design (including two pilot trials), two studies used a 2-group quasi-randomized experimental design, and one used a 3-group RCT design. The intervention groups were compared to usual care (n=6), attention control groups (n=6) (e.g., provided publicly available health information), or waitlist control (n=3).
Participants
In total, 2064 participants were included in this review, with study sample sizes ranging from 40 (72) to 500 (73). Most studies (n = 12) included more women than men; two studies included only women (74, 75). Participants’ primary diagnoses were cancer (n=7) (73, 75-80), diabetes type II (n=4) (72, 74, 81, 82), chronic heart disease (n=1) (83), chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (n=1) (81), multiple sclerosis (MS) (n=1) (84), epilepsy (n=1) (85), and chronic kidney disease (n=1) (86) (non-exclusive categories as some studies focused on two illness groups). Mean reported age in the sample ranged from 35.0 to 70.8 years. Depressive symptomatology across study groups ranged from mild to severe, with the mean reported symptoms most often in the moderate range (35-38, 41-43, 87, 88).
Interventions
Included interventions are described in Table 1. Six studies of the 15 studies evaluated the same or similar interventions, in different populations (73, 78-80, 85, 89). Time spent participating in interventions (intervention duration) ranged from 20 (82) to 2340 min (75) (n=14, mean=552.9, SD=662.9). The length of time over which interventions were delivered ranged from one session (82) to two 12-month programs (75, 77).
The primary format of the interventions was individual (n=11) (72, 73, 76, 78-85); however, three studies used a group format (74, 75, 86), and one included both group and individual sessions (77). In terms of mode of delivery, seven studies used a combination of face-to-face and telephone contact (most favoured face-to-face contact with telephone follow-up only if needed) (72, 73, 75, 78-80, 83), four were delivered entirely face-to-face (74, 77, 81, 86), three were online (76, 84, 85), and one was a video on a computer tablet (82).
In terms of level of guidance, most of the interventions were led by an interventionist (n=11) (72-75, 77-81, 83, 86), three were self-directed (two online programs and one a video) (82, 84, 85), and one intervention was guided self-directed (participants independently worked through the intervention with feedback on exercises) (76). The interventionists were all HCPs, other than one provided by a trained research assistant supervised by a psychologist (72). Four of the interventions were delivered by nurses supervised or supported by psychiatrists (73, 78-80), three were delivered solely by nurses (74, 81, 83), one by psychologists (75), and the remaining two interventions were delivered by interdisciplinary HCPs (76, 86).
The content of the interventions focused on a combination of structured problem-solving (n=12) (72, 73, 75-81, 83, 85), providing disease specific health information (n=13; it was an optional component in two of the 13) (72-75, 77-80, 82, 83, 85, 86), relaxation and stress management (n=7) (74, 75, 77, 82, 85, 86, 89), using CBT principles (e.g., challenging negative self-talk) (n=5) (74, 77, 81, 85, 89), care coordination (e.g., communicating the depressive symptoms to HCP team members) (n=4) (73, 78-80), and finding health services (n=2) (82, 83).
Eleven interventions were coded for a possible 13 depression SM skills (interventions that contained the same content were combined). The skills identified for each intervention are summarized in Appendix A. Across the sample, the mean number of skills was 6.2 (SD=2.4, range 2-11). The most frequently included skill was problem-solving (n=9), followed by decision-making (n=8), taking action (n=7), social support (n=7), and self-tailoring (n=7). Less frequently addressed skills were social support (n=1), resource utilization (n=2), and forming partnerships with HCPs (n=2).
Table 1
Descriptive Summary of Included Studies
Author, Year, Country, Quality Assessment Score (QAS) (/17)
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Aim(s)
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Demographics
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Intervention and control conditions and assessments
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Outcome(s)
[Primary (P), Secondary (S), Unspecified (O)]
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Barley et al., 2014 (83, 90)
United Kingdom
Pilot RCT (2 groups)
QAS:12
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To explore the acceptability and feasibility of procedures to inform a definitive RCT of a practice nurse-led personalised care intervention for CHD patients with at least probable depression and chest pain.
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Symptomatic chronic heart disease (with active chest pain)
N=81 (T=41, C=40)
Mean age: 65 (SD=11)
% female = 35.8
Race/ethnicity: 83% white
Mean HADS-D score: T=12 (SD=3), C=11 (SD=3)
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T: Nine sessions (one face-to-face assessment + 15-min follow-up phone calls) with nurse focused on identifying problems contributing to depression, providing support resources, devising personal health plan, goal setting, and building self-efficacy.
C: Usual care.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face and telephone.
Interventionist: Nurse.
Intervention duration: Mean 203 minutes (SD 100) with nurse (mean 78 SD19 for face-to-face assessment; mean 125 SD 91 in follow-up telephone calls).
Intervention length: 6-months.
Level of guidance: Guided
Timing of measures: 1-, 6-, and 12-months post baseline.
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P: T1=C for depression
T2=C depression
S: T1=C for anxiety
T1=C for MCS and PCS
T2=C for anxiety, MCS, and PCS
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Boele et al., 2014 (76, 91)
Netherlands
RCT (3 groups)
QAS: 10
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To decrease depressive symptoms using low-intensity guided self-help based on problem-solving therapy delivered online to increase accessibility and decrease barriers to accessing mental health care.
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Glioma (CNS cancer)
N=115 (T=45, C1=26, C2=44)
Mean age: T=43.6 (SD=11.7), C1=52.8 (SD=9.3), C2= 46.4 (SD=12.3)
% female: T=58.7, C1=54.9, C2=59.1
Most common diagnosis in C1: non-Hodgkin lymphoma (46.2%)
Mean CES-D score: T= 21.5 (SD=6.1), C1= 25.1 (SD=6.7), C2=24.1 (SD=6.6)
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T= Guided self-help course based on problem-solving therapy including disease specific information. Five modules and exercises. Online support and feedback on exercises provided by coach.
C1= Non-CNS cancer control group. Received intervention.
C2 = Glioma 12-week waitlist control group (WLC).
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Online
Interventionist: Psychologist, nurse, or psychology student.
Intervention duration: n/a
Intervention length: 5 weeks.
Level of guidance: Guided self-directed.
Timing of measures: 1.5-, 3-, 12-months post-baseline (last outcome measure not included for analysis as WLC group had completed intervention).
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P: T1=C2 for depression
S: T1>C2 for MCS (ES: 0.87)
T1=C2 for PCS
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Espahbodi et al., 2015 (86)
Iran
Quasi-experimental (randomized matched design)
QAS: 5
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To investigate the impacts of education on psychological symptoms (anxiety and depression) in patient undergoing dialysis.
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Renal Failure (receiving dialysis)
N=55 (T=27, C=28)
Mean age: T=49.1 (SD=14.5), C=52.3 (SD=15.6)
% female: T=52, C=50
Mean HADS-D: T=10.2 (SD=3.4), C=10.1 (SD=3.4)
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T: Psychoeducational intervention (3 sessions x 60 min) focused on disease-specific information (e.g., physiology, causes, treatments) as well as problem-solving, stress management, adaptive responses, and muscle relaxation.
C: Usual care.
Format: Group
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face.
Interventionist: Unspecified. In collaboration with a nephrologist and psychiatrist.
Intervention duration: 180 minutes.
Intervention length: Approximately 5 days.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 1.25-months post-baseline.
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P: T1=C for depression and anxiety
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Fischer et al., 2015 (89)
Germany
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 8
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To evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of a fully automated internet-based CBT program to reduce depressive symptoms in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS).
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Multiple sclerosis
N=90 (T=45, C=45)
Mean age: T=45.2 (SD=12.6), C=45.4 (SD=10.6)
% female: T=76, C=80
Mean BDI score: T=19.4 (SD=9.0), C=18.4 (SD=8.2)
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T= Ten online modules using simulated dialogue and tailored based on participant response. Content draws on: (1) Behavioral Activation, (2) Cognitive Modification, (3) Mindfulness and Acceptance, (4) Interpersonal Skills, (5) Relaxation, Physical Exercise and Lifestyle Modification, (6) Problem Solving, (7) Childhood Experiences and Early Schemas, (8) Positive Psychology Interventions, (9) Dreamwork and Emotion-Focused Interventions, and (10) Psychoeducation.
C= 2.25-month WLC
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Online.
Interventionist: Self-directed.
Intervention duration: Self-directed. Mean use: 332 minutes (range 50-905 minutes).
Length of intervention: 2.25 months.
Level of guidance: Self-directed.
Timing of measures: 2.25- and 8.25-months post-baseline (last outcome measure not included for analysis as WLC group had completed intervention).
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P: T1=C for depression
S: T=C for fatigue
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Lamers et al., 2010a (81, 92)
Netherlands
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 12
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To evaluate the effectiveness of a nurse-administered minimal psychological intervention in reducing depressive symptoms in elderly primary care patients with type II diabetes or COPD with co-morbid non-severe depression.
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Type II diabetes, COPD
N=361(T=183, C=178)
Mean age: T=70.8 (SD=6.5), C=70.6 (SD=6.8)
% female: T=46.6, C=46.4
Primary diagnosis:
T: 49.7% diabetes, 50.3% COPD
C: 52.8% diabetes, 47.2% COPD
Mean BDI score:
T=17.1 (SD=7.2)
C=17.7 (SD=8.0)
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T= Tailored intervention with variable number of sessions (2-10) based on principles of SM and CBT and includes 5 phases: exploring feelings and behaviours, mood monitoring, linking to behaviour, action planning, goal setting.
C= Usual care.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face.
Interventionist: Nurse.
Intervention duration: Mean 240 minutes.
Intervention length: Tailored up to 3-months.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: Approximately 3.25-, 6-month, and 9-months post-baseline (assuming 3-month intervention period).
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P: T1=C for depression
T2=C for depression
S: T1=C for MCS and PCS
T2=C for MCS and PCS
COPD sub-group*
T1=C for MCS
T2=C for MCS
DMII sub-group*
T1=C for MCS
T2=C for MCS
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Lamers et al. 2010b (93)
Note: Subgroup analysis of Lamers 2010a
Netherlands
RCT (2 groups)
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To evaluate the effectiveness of a nurse-administered minimal psychological intervention in reducing depressive symptoms in elderly primary care patients with COPD with co-morbid non-severe depression.
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COPD
N=187 (T=96, C=91)
Mean age: T=70.5 (SD=6.3), C=71.5 (SD=7.1)
% female: T=41.8, C=38.5
Mean BDI score:
T=17.1 (SD=6.5), C=18.3 (SD=7.2)
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See Lamers et al., 2010a
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P: T1=C for depression*
T2=C for depression*
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Lamers et al., 2011(94)
Note: Subgroup analysis of Lamers 2010a
Netherlands
RCT (2 groups)
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To evaluate whether a nurse-administered minimal psychological intervention based on CBT and SM principles improves disease-specific quality of life and glycemic control in patients with type II diabetes and co-morbid non-severe depression.
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Type II diabetes
N=208 (T=105, C=103)
Mean age: T=70.7 (SD=6.6), C=69.7 (SD=6.6)
% female: T=51.4, C=50.4
Depression level: Not specified. Participants underwent Mini International Neuropsychiatric review. Those with minor depression, mild-to-moderate major depression or dysthymia were included.
Depression level: Not specified.
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See Lamers et al., 2010a
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P: T1=C for depression*
T2=C for depression*
S: T1=C for glycemic control (HbA1c)
T2=C for glycemic control (HbA1c)
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Lee et al., 2014 (82)
Republic of Korea
Quasi-RCT – group allocation based on consent date (2 groups)
QAS: 12
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To evaluate the effectiveness of a tablet PC-based single session psychoeducation intervention for cancer patients reporting significant levels of distress.
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Type II diabetes
*per group data not available
N=111 (T=57, C=54)
Median age: 57.5 (range 34-71)
% female: 55.6
Mean HADS-D score:
T= 12.0 (SD=3.7), C=12.7 (SD=1.5)
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T= Twenty-minute psychoeducation video clip. Content consisted of distress education, cancer survivor interview, coping strategies and stress management, as well as psychological services.
C= Control movie clip of scenic images and relaxing music.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Video presented on computer tablet.
Interventionist: n/a
Intervention duration: 20-minutes.
Length of intervention: 20-minutes.
Level of guidance: Self-directed
Timing of measures: 1-day (post-intervention same day as baseline measures) and 2-4 weeks post-baseline.
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P: T1>C for depression (ES: -1.13) and MCS (ES: 1.08)
T1=C for anxiety
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Moncrieft et al., 2016 (77)
United States
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 9
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To determine the effect of a multicomponent behavourial intervention on weight, glycemic control, renal function, and depressive symptoms in adults with DMII and depressive symptoms.
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Cancer patients receiving chemotherapy treatment
N=36 (T=19, C=17)
Mean age: T=54.8 (SD=8.3), C=54.8 (SD=6.3)
% female: T=64.9, C=77.8
Mean BDI-II score: T=19.3 (SD=7.1)
C=21.2 (SD=7.1)
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T: Structured lifestyle intervention (17 sessions x 1.5-2 hours). Two individual sessions followed by two weekly, four bi-weekly, and nine monthly group sessions. Intervention components focused on diet and physical activity, including a weight loss, exercise, and caloric intake goals, combined with cognitive behavioural and social learning approaches to managing depression.
C: Usual care + brief educational booklet on diabetes management.
Format: Individual and group.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face.
Interventionist: Therapists.
Intervention duration: 1530 to 2040 minutes.
Intervention length: 12-months.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 6- and 12-months post-baseline.
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P: T2>C for depression (ES: -0.62)
T2=C for glycemic control (HbA1c)
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Penckofer et al., 2012 (74)
United States
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 12
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To examine the effects of a nurse-delivered psychoeducation intervention on depression, anxiety, and anger among women with type II diabetes.
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Type II diabetes
N=74 (T=38, C=36)
Mean age: T=58.4 (SD=8.8), C=54.0 (SD=8.4)
% female: 100
Mean CES-D score: T=27.7 (SD=9.3)
C=28.9 (SD=9.5)
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T= Sessions (8 weekly sessions + 2 booster sessions x 1hour/session) focused on recognizing signs and symptoms of depression, relationship between mood, metabolic control, and self-care behaviours, the management of depression, anxiety, and anger using CBT. Includes elements from existing interventions such as CBT program for depression, progressive muscle relaxation CD, and system for management of anger including workbook and video.
C= Usual care.
Format: Group.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face.
Interventionist: Nurse.
Intervention duration: 600 minutes
Intervention length:6-months
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 3- and 6-months post-baseline.
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P: T1> C for depression (ES: -0.78)
T1=C for trait anxiety
T1=C for state anxiety
T2>C for depression (ES: -0.94) and trait anxiety (ES: -0.62)
T2=C for state anxiety (ES: -0.74)
S: T1=C for MCS
T1=C for PCS and
glycemic control (HbA1c)
T2=C for glycemic control (HbA1c) and PCS
T2>C for MCS (ES: 0.60)
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Rees et al., 2017(72)
Australia
Pilot RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 12
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To provide preliminary evidence for the impact of problem-solving therapy for diabetes in adults with diabetic retinopathy and diabetes distress.
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Type II diabetes and diabetic retinopathy
N=40 (T=21, C=19)
Mean age: T=60.1 (SD=7.0), C=59.6 (SD=8.8)
% female: T=33.3, C=31.6
Mean PHQ-9 score: T=10.5 (SD=5.2)
C=10.2 (SD=5.7)
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T: Provided publicly available information on diabetes + problem solving therapy for diabetes, which consisted of weekly sessions (8 x 45-60 min) in which participants identified problems related to diabetes and were guided through a problem-solving process (e.g., brainstorming solutions, obstacles to implementation, action plans). Participants were also asked to make plans to engage in enjoyable activities.
C: Usual care + same publicly available brochures on diabetes as T group.
Format: Individual
Mode of delivery: Phone or in-person (based on preference and availability).
Interventionist: Research assistant supervised by clinical psychologist.
Intervention duration: 360-480 minutes.
Intervention length: 2-months
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 3- and 6-months post-baseline.
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S: T1=C for depression and glycemic control (HbA1c)
T2=C for depression and glycemic control (HbA1c)
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Schroder et al., 2014 (85)
Germany
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 9
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To evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of an online program for depression in individuals with epilepsy and co-morbid depressive symptoms.
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Epilepsy
N=78 (T=38, C=40)
Mean age: T=35.0 (SD=10.0), C= 40.0 (SD=11.9)
% female: 75.6
Mean BDI score:
T=22.2 (SD=10.4)
C=19.4 (SD=9.8)
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T: Ten online modules (10-60 min each) comprised mostly of CBT elements (cognitive restructuring, behavioural activation) and mindfulness and acceptance exercises.
C: 9-week WLC
Format: Individual
Mode of delivery: Online.
Interventionist: Self-directed.
Intervention duration: 100-600 minutes.
Intervention length: 2.25 months.
Level of guidance: Self-directed.
Timing of measures: 2.25 months post-baseline.
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P: T1=C for depression
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Sharpe et al., 2004 (80)
United Kingdom (Scotland)
Non-randomized matched control group design (2 groups)
QAS: 12
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To perform preliminary evaluation of the feasibility and efficacy of a nurse-led intervention with oncology outpatients.
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Cancer (outpatients with breast, gynaecological, bladder, prostate, testicular and colorectal)
N=60 (T=30, C=30)
Mean age: T=58.0 (SD=10.6), C= 56.0 (SD=10.5)
% female: T= 93.3, C=93.3
Mean HADS-D score:
T=10.4 (SD=3.6)
C=10.3 (SD=4.0)
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T: The intervention consisted of up to 10 weekly problem-solving therapy sessions (30 min each) to help with a positive and systematic approach to tackling problems, education about depression, encouragement to speak with their general practitioner about anti-depressant medication, and coordination and monitoring of the participant’s treatment. Participants could contact the nurse for further booster sessions.
C: Usual care.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face or phone.
Interventionist: Nurse supervised by psychiatrist.
Intervention duration: Nurse spent mean of 360 minutes with participants.
Intervention length: Ranged from 0.5-4 months (with 6 participants requesting booster sessions).
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 3- and 6-months post-baseline.
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P: T1>C for depression (ES: -0.87)
T1>C % of participants who no longer met criteria for major depressive disorder*
T2>C for depression on HADS-D (ES: -0.58)
S: T1>C for anxiety (ES: -1.25)
T2>C for anxiety (ES: -0.88)
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Sharpe et al., 2014 (73)
(SMaRT Oncology-2)
United Kingdom (Scotland)
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 14
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To compare the effectiveness of an integrated treatment programme for major depression in patients with cancer with usual care.
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Cancer with prognosis of survival over 12-months.
N=500 (T=253, C=247)
Mean age: T=56.6 (SD=10.0), C= 56.1 (SD=10.2)
% female: T= 90, C=90
Mean SLC-20 score:
T=2.10 (SD=0.62)
C=2.11 (SD=0.56)
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T: Based on Strong et al. (2008). Primary care physician and oncologist informed of major depression disorder diagnosis + multicomponent treatment program integrated into cancer care in which participants form relationships with nurses who provide information about depression, deliver problem-solving therapy, and monitor progress (up to 10 sessions X 45 min and additional sessions available for those not meeting treatment targets).
C: Usual care + primary care physician and oncologist informed of major depression diagnosis + participant encouraged to consult their primary care physician to obtain treatment.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Primarily face-to-face, sometimes telephone.
Interventionist: Oncology nurses supervised by a psychiatrist.
Intervention duration: 405 min. Median number of sessions: 9 (range 0-10).
Intervention length: 4-months for initial sessions and further sessions for those who are not meeting treatment targets.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-months post-baseline.
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P: T1> C for depression (ES: -0.87)
T2>C for depression (ES: -1.03)
S: T1>C for anxiety (ES: -0.61) and fatigue (ES: -0.41)
T2>C for anxiety (ES: -0.71) and fatigue (ES: -0.60)
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Strong et al., 2008 (79)
(SMaRT oncology 1)
United Kingdom (Scotland)
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 14
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To assess the efficacy and cost of a nurse-delivered complex intervention designed to treat major depressive disorder in patients with cancer.
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Cancer
N=200 (T=101, C=99)
Mean age: T=56.6 (SD=11.4), C= 56.6 (SD=12.3)
% female: T=69, C=72
Median SCL-20 score (IQR): T=2.35 (1.95-2.75), C=2.25 (1.95-2.75)
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T: Maximum of 10 session (45-min each) over 3-months followed monitoring of symptoms and optional 1-2 sessions in the next 3-months for those whose depression scores increased. The intervention included education about depression and treatment, problem-solving treatment, and communicating with the participant’s primary care physician and oncologist about their depression diagnosis.
C: Usual care + informed primary care physician and oncologist of depression diagnosis and, if requested, provided advice regarding choice of antidepressant medication.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Primarily in-person, some by telephone if needed.
Interventionist: Oncology nurse supervised by a psychiatrist.
Intervention duration: Mean of 315 minutes based on mean of 7 sessions (range 2-10).
Intervention length: 6-months.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 3-, 6-months post-baseline
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P: T1>C for depression*
T2>C for depression*
S: T1>C for anxiety and fatigue*
T2>C for anxiety and fatigue*
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Thorton et al., 2009 (75)
United States
RCT (2 groups)
Secondary analysis
QAS: 11
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To test experimentally whether a psychological intervention reduces depression-related symptoms and markers of inflammation among cancer patients.
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Breast cancer (Stage II/III, surgically treated, and waiting for adjuvant therapies)
N=45 (T=23, C=22)
Mean age: T=50.0 (SD=8.6), C= 50.0 (SD=11.6)
% female: 100
Mean CES-D Iowa short-form score not reported. All participants included in the secondary analysis scored ≥ 10 as part of inclusion criteria.
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T: Group sessions (8-12 patients) for 1.5 hours for 18 weekly sessions followed by 8 monthly sessions. Topics included stress management, emotional distress, social adjustment, health behaviours (e.g., diet, exercise), and adherence to treatment.
C: Usual care.
Format: Group.
Mode of delivery: Face-to-face (some telephone contact to catch up on information if sessions were missed).
Interventionist: Psychologists.
Intervention duration: 2340 min.
Intervention length: 12-months.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 4-, 8-, 12-months post-baseline.
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P: T1>C for depression*
T2> C for depression*
S: T1>C for fatigue*
T2>C for fatigue*
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Walker et al., 2014 (78)
(SMaRT Oncology-3)
United Kingdom (Scotland)
RCT (2 groups)
QAS: 13
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To assess the efficacy of an integrated treatment program for major depressive disorder in patients with lung cancer compared with usual care.
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Lung cancer
N=142 (T=68, C=74)
Mean age: T=63.6 (SD=8.8), C= 63.9 (SD=8.7)
% female: T=64, C=65
Mean SCL-20 score: T=1.90 (SD 0.52), C=1.98 (0.58)
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T: Adapted from Sharpe et al. (2014). Maximum of 10 sessions (30-45 min) over 4-months followed by monitoring of symptoms and optional additional sessions for participants who did not meet treatment target. Nurses establish therapeutic relationship, provide information about depression, delivery problem-solving therapy and behavioural activation and monitor progress. Psychiatrists supervise treatment, advise primary care physicians, and provide direct consultation to participants not progressing.
C: Usual care + primary care physician and oncologist informed of the diagnosis of major depression and participant encouraged to see primary care physician to obtain treatment.
Format: Individual.
Mode of delivery: Primarily face-to-face, some telephone contact.
Interventionist: Nurse and psychiatrist.
Intervention duration: 240-360 minutes (median number of sessions 8 IQR 7-10).
Intervention length: 8-months.
Level of guidance: Guided.
Timing of measures: 4-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 20-, 24-, 28-, 32-weeks post-baseline. Outcomes averaged over the participants time in the trial (up to 32-weeks).
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Outcomes averaged over the participants time in the trial (up to 32-weeks).
P: T>C for depression*
S: T>C for anxiety*
T=C for fatigue*
|
Notes: Only post-intervention primary and secondary outcomes of interest in this review reported across at least 3 studies within one time period (T1 and/or T2) included. T1- baseline to < 6 months post-baseline; T2 ≥6 months post-baseline. T=treatment condition; C=control condition; T > C = treatment significantly superior to control; T < C = control superior to treatment; T = C = no significant differences between. ES= Effect size (Hedge’s g calculated at 95% confidence level); Intervention duration= number of minutes spent participating in intervention based on reported participation or expected duration; Intervention length: Length of time over which intervention was delivered; *Indicates that insufficient data available to calculate effect size so outcome is as reported by authors; sign of effect size based on negative orientation of scale (as intervention always compared with control – scales in which decreased scores indicate improvement are negative); Duration of the intervention based on reported mean or median adherence (in minutes) multiplied by the number of sessions, if needed, or, if not available, amount of time authors reported intervention would take (e.g., 4 sessions X 60 min= 240 min). If the range of individual sessions was provided (e.g., 15 to 30 minutes per session), the midpoint (e.g., 22.5) was multiplied by the number of sessions.; IQR=interquartile range; CHD = coronary heart disease, CNS = central nervous system, PST= problem-solving therapy; WLC = wait list control group; MS = multiple sclerosis; COPD= chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder; ER= emergency room; QoL=quality of life; CBT=cognitive behavioural therapy; BDI= Beck Depression Inventory (34); BDI-II= Beck Depression Inventory-II (36); CES-D= Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (38); HADS-D= Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Depression (42); PHQ-9= Patient Health Questionnaire (43); HRQoL=Health related Quality of Life and includes: PCS= physical health composite scale; MCS=mental health composite scale.
Methodological Quality
Quality assessment scores are included in Table 1 and detailed scoring is available in Appendix D. The mean quality assessment score across the sample was 11.2 (SD 2.14) out of a possible 17 indicating that on average the studies were of moderate methodological quality. Scores ranged from 6 to 14 with four studies assessed as being of high methodological quality (72, 73, 78, 79). The least met criteria related to blinding.
Outcomes: Descriptive and Meta-analysis
Primary Outcome: Depression
Eleven studies were included in the meta-analysis in the T1 period (see Figure 2). The pooled effect size of -0.47 [95% CI -0.73, -0.21] was significant with high heterogeneity I² = 76% and favoured the interventions over the control conditions. The results remained significant after the Knapp-Hartung (KH) conversion [95% CI -0.74, -0.02]. Statistically significant effect sizes ranged from -0.78 (74) to -1.13 (82).
When examining potential sources of heterogeneity, three studies were found to have high pharmacological co-intervention that was significantly imbalanced across groups (73, 80, 83). When these were removed from the meta-analysis, the pooled effect size with 8 studies was of -0.41 [95% CI -0.61, -0.20] with I² = 32%. Using both the DerSimonian–Laird and the more conservative KH approach and examining potential sources of heterogeneity, the findings of all analyses indicated a statistically significant moderate effect of interventions as compared to control conditions. The two studies not included in the meta-analysis measuring depression outcomes were in line with the findings from the meta-analysis (75, 79).
In the T2 time period, 7 studies were included in the meta-analysis (see Figure 3). The pooled effect size of -0.53 [95% CI -0.91, -0.15] was statistically significant with high heterogeneity, I²= 86% favouring the interventions. The results remained significant after KH conversion [95% CI -95, -0.13]. Excluding the same three studies as in T1 (73, 80, 83) from the meta-analysis resulted in a pooled effect size, with 4 studies, of -0.53 [95% CI -0.84, -0.21] with moderate heterogeneity, I²= 50% The one study (78) not entered into the meta-analysis at T2 also favored the intervention over control group.
Secondary Outcomes
A summary of results for secondary outcomes is presented in Table 2. Forest plots of meta-analysis results at the T1 and T2 periods for secondary outcomes is in Appendix E.
Anxiety. In the T1 period, 7 studies were entered in the meta-analysis (73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 86, 93). The pooled effect size was -0.42 [95% CI -0.73, -0.12] with heterogeneity of I²= 73% in favour of the interventions. This finding remained significant after HK conversion [95% CI -0.82, -0.02]. Removing the same three studies as identified for depression (high pharmacological co-intervention) (73, 80, 83), the pooled effect size was significant, -0.29 [95% CI -0.53, -0.06], with no heterogeneity, I²=0%. One study (79) was not entered into the meta-analysis and favoured the intervention.
For the T2 time period, 4 studies were included in the meta-analysis (73, 74, 80, 83). The pooled effect size was -0.52 [95% CI -0.94, -0.10] with high heterogeneity, I² = 77%. This was not significant after HK conversion. Removing the same three studies (73, 80, 83) did not decrease the heterogeneity. The one study (78) not entered into the meta-analysis reported a significant improvement in anxiety in the intervention group as compared to the control.
Health-related Quality of Life.
Mental Component Score (MCS) of Health-Related Quality of Life. Five studies were included in the meta-analysis in the T1 period (74, 76, 82, 83, 93). The pooled effect size was statistically significant with moderate heterogeneity, 0.43 [0.09, 0.76] with I² = 60%. However, it was not significant after HK conversion. Removing the results reported by Barley et al., 2014 (83) did not improve heterogeneity. For T2, the 3 studies were entered in the meta-analysis and did not result in significant pooled effect sizes (72, 74, 81).
Table 2
Effect Sizes for T1 and T2 for Secondary Outcomes
Note: T1 baseline to <6-months; T2 ≥ 6-months. HRQoL=Health-related Quality of Life. I2 = Higgin’s I2 statistic. CI = confidence interval.
Physical Component Score (PCS) of Health-Related Quality of Life. Five studies were entered into the meta-analysis for the T1 period (74, 76, 81-83) and 3 studies for the T2 time period (74, 81, 83). The pooled effect sizes were not significant at either time point.
|
Timepoints
|
T1
|
T2
|
Secondary Outcomes
|
# of studies
|
SMD (95% CI)
|
I2 (%)
|
# of studies
|
SMD (95% CI)
|
I2 (%)
|
Anxiety
|
7
|
-0.61 [-0.80, -0.43]
|
73
|
4
|
-0.52 [-0.94, -0.10]
|
77
|
Mental Component Score (HRQoL)
|
5
|
0.43 [0.09, 0.76]
|
60
|
3
|
-0.08 [-0.57, 0.41]
|
49
|
Physical Component Score (HRQoL)
|
5
|
0.01 [-0.18, 0.20]
|
0
|
3
|
0.03 [-0.18, 0.24]
|
0
|
Fatigue
|
3
|
-0.36 [-0.67, -0.06]
|
50
|
1
|
-0.60 [-0.78, -0.41]
|
|
Glycemic Control (HbA1c)
|
3
|
-0.08 [-0.57, 0.41]
|
49
|
4
|
-0.35 [-0.62, -0.07]
|
0
|
Fatigue. For the T1 period, three studies were included in the meta-analysis (73, 76, 89) and resulted in a significant pooled effect size of -0.36 [-0.67, -0.06] with moderate heterogeneity, I²=50%. The results were not significant if Sharpe, Walker (73) was removed from the analysis. For T2, only one study reported needed data for meta-analysis (73) and the results were statistically significant with an effect size of -0.60 [-0.78, -0.41] in favour of the intervention. Of the three studies not included in the meta-analysis, two reported in favour of the intervention at the T1 and T2 time periods (75, 79), and the remaining study reported no significant effect on this outcome (78).
Glycemic Control (HbA1c). Three studies were entered into the meta-analysis in the T1 period (72, 74, 94) and the results of the pooled effect size were not significant. At T2, 4 studies were included in the meta-analysis (72, 74, 77, 94) and the results were significant with an effect size of -0.35 [CI 95% -0.62, -0.07] and no heterogeneity, I²= 0%.
Moderator Analyses
The results of the moderator analyses for the T1 time period are presented in Table 2. The three studies found to be outliers (73, 80, 83) were not included in these analyses. There was not enough data to perform meta-regression for the T2 period (4 studies total); however, 8 studies were included for the T1. Meta-regressions were performed for the following 5 moderators as there were 4 studies in each sub-group: duration of the intervention (<300 min or ≥ 300 min), behavioural activation (yes/no), health habits (yes/no), self-tailoring (yes/no), and number of SM skills included in the intervention (1-6 or 7-13). None were found to be significant. Additional meta-regressions were run for the following 9 moderators including a minimum of 3 studies per sub-group: baseline depression level of the study sample (mild to moderate/moderately severe to severe), level of guidance (guided/self-directed), intervention provider (professional or self-directed), length of the intervention (< 3 months/ ≥ 3 months), decision-making (yes/no), taking action (yes/no), cognitive restructuring (yes/no), self-monitoring (yes/no), and relaxation (yes/no). The results were significant for the two SM skills of decision-making (p=0.020) and taking action (p=0.017).
Table 3
Moderator Analyses Outcomes T1
Variables
|
# of studies
|
Pooled ES
|
L95
|
U95
|
P-value
|
I2
|
Meta-regression p-value
|
Overall
|
8
|
-0.41
|
-0.61
|
-0.20
|
<0.001
|
32%
|
|
Disease
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Cancer
|
1
|
-0.45
|
-1.05
|
0.15
|
|
|
|
Other
|
7
|
-0.41
|
-0.65
|
-0.18
|
0.001
|
41%
|
|
Baseline depression level
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.926
|
Mild to moderate
|
5
|
-0.42
|
-0.72
|
-0.11
|
0.007
|
44%
|
|
Moderate severe to severe
|
3
|
-0.43
|
-0.75
|
-0.11
|
0.009
|
26%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Level of guidance
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.840
|
Guided
|
5
|
-0.37
|
-0.62
|
-0.13
|
0.002
|
26%
|
|
Self-directed
|
3
|
-0.49
|
-0.96
|
-0.02
|
0.042
|
56%
|
|
Mode of delivery
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.840
|
Face to face
|
5
|
-0.37
|
-0.62
|
-0.13
|
0.002
|
26%
|
|
Not face to face
|
3
|
-0.49
|
-0.96
|
-0.02
|
0.042
|
56%
|
|
Provider
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.840
|
Professional
|
5
|
-0.38
|
-0.63
|
-0.14
|
0.002
|
28%
|
|
Self-directed
|
3
|
-0.5
|
-0.98
|
-0.02
|
0.042
|
58%
|
|
Format
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Individual
|
6
|
-0.33
|
-0.55
|
-0.11
|
0.004
|
25%
|
|
Group
|
2
|
-0.65
|
-1.01
|
-0.28
|
0.001
|
0%
|
|
Duration of Intervention
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1.000
|
<300 min
|
4
|
-0.47
|
-0.85
|
-0.09
|
0.016
|
58%
|
|
≥ 300
|
4
|
-0.41
|
-0.66
|
-0.16
|
0.002
|
0%
|
|
Control Group
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Active
|
2
|
-0.70
|
-1.52
|
0.11
|
0.09
|
64%
|
|
Not active
|
6
|
-0.33
|
-0.51
|
-0.15
|
<0.001
|
10%
|
|
Methodological Quality
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Low
|
1
|
-0.49
|
-1.03
|
0.04
|
0.072
|
|
|
Moderate
|
7
|
-0.41
|
-0.64
|
-0.17
|
0.001
|
40%
|
|
Length of Intervention
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.858
|
< 3 months
|
5
|
-0.43
|
-0.70
|
-0.17
|
0.001
|
15%
|
|
≥ 3 months
|
3
|
-0.41
|
-0.81
|
-0.02
|
0.042
|
60%
|
|
Depression Self-Management Skills
|
Decision-making
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.016*
|
No
|
3
|
-0.75
|
-1.08
|
-0.42
|
<0.001
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
5
|
-0.23
|
-0.41
|
-0.05
|
0.011
|
0%
|
|
Problem-solving
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
2
|
-0.90
|
-1.31
|
-0.48
|
<0.001
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
6
|
-0.26
|
-0.43
|
-0.09
|
0.003
|
0%
|
|
Resource Utilization
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
7
|
-0.31
|
-0.47
|
-0.15
|
<0.001
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
1
|
-1.13
|
-1.85
|
-0.41
|
0.002
|
|
|
Partnerships with HCPs
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
7
|
-0.49
|
-0.70
|
-0.28
|
<0.001
|
4%
|
|
Yes
|
1
|
-0.16
|
-0.4
|
0.08
|
0.197
|
|
|
Taking Action
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.020*
|
No
|
3
|
-0.75
|
-1.08
|
-0.42
|
<0.001
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
5
|
-0.23
|
-0.41
|
-0.05
|
0.011
|
0%
|
|
Behavioural Activation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1.000
|
No
|
4
|
-0.47
|
-0.85
|
-0.09
|
0.016
|
58%
|
|
Yes
|
4
|
-0.41
|
-0.66
|
-0.16
|
0.002
|
0%
|
|
Cognitive Restructuring
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.297
|
No
|
3
|
-0.61
|
-1.06
|
-0.16
|
0.008
|
34%
|
|
Yes
|
5
|
-0.32
|
-0.53
|
-0.11
|
0.003
|
21%
|
|
Self-monitoring
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.694
|
No
|
5
|
-0.45
|
-0.71
|
-0.19
|
0.001
|
12%
|
|
Yes
|
3
|
-0.38
|
-0.78
|
0.02
|
0.065
|
57%
|
|
Health Habits
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.283
|
No
|
4
|
-0.25
|
-0.45
|
-0.05
|
0.014
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
4
|
-0.56
|
-0.93
|
-0.19
|
0.003
|
49%
|
|
Communicating about Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
7
|
-0.34
|
-0.53
|
-0.14
|
0.001
|
17%
|
|
Yes
|
1
|
-0.78
|
-1.29
|
-0.27
|
0.003
|
|
|
Social Support
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.279
|
No
|
3
|
-0.23
|
-0.43
|
-0.02
|
0.036
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
5
|
-0.53
|
-0.82
|
-0.23
|
<0.001
|
33%
|
|
Relaxation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.212
|
No
|
3
|
-0.21
|
-0.42
|
0.00
|
0.053
|
0%
|
|
Yes
|
5
|
-0.53
|
-0.82
|
-0.25
|
<0.001
|
32%
|
|
Self-tailoring
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.747
|
No
|
4
|
-0.47
|
-0.80
|
-0.14
|
0.005
|
34%
|
|
Yes
|
4
|
-0.37
|
-0.67
|
-0.07
|
0.015
|
40%
|
|
Number of Skills
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.311
|
1 - 6
|
4
|
-0.56
|
-0.88
|
-0.24
|
0.001
|
6%
|
|
7-13
|
4
|
-0.32
|
-0.57
|
-0.07
|
0.013
|
37%
|
|
Random effect model was used to compute the pooled effect size
*p<0.05 indicating statistical significance