Obesity and related chronic health issues affect the lives of many adolescents in the United States, partially due to chronically low rates of daily physical activity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). Daily physical activity (PA) is a key factor of sustaining good health and can improve physical, psychological, and social well-being (Fullmer et al., 2018). However, recent national studies indicate that only approximately 24% of children aged 6–17 years participate in 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) each day and significantly fewer adolescents (i.e., 7.5% of 12-15-year-olds, and 5.1% of 16-19-year-olds) meet MVPA recommendations compared to that of younger children (42.5% of 6-11-year-olds; National Physical Activity Plan Alliance, 2018). The situation is particularly dire for adolescents from underserved, minority communities, as they face additional barriers, including lack of access to PA supportive practices, expensive “pay-to-play” recreational activity models, facility and equipment shortages, and high teacher or staff burn out rate (Peralta et al., 2019). Consequently, underserved minority youth have been consistently identified as having the lowest rates of PA (Peralta et al., 2019) and the greatest need for PA intervention.
Afterschool programs (ASPs) are considered highly feasible sites for PA promotion and commonly offer various PA programs and opportunities that can be used to supplement PA time for adolescents (Zarrett et al., 2018). Recent data indicates that over 7.8 million children and adolescents in the United States participate in ASPs that support healthy eating and PA opportunities (Afterschool Alliance, 2020) and have notable reach to minority youth within underserved communities (Zarrett et al., 2021). ASPs can promote levels of daily PA time among youth and can also benefit them both socially and mentally (Fenton et al., 2016). Drawing from research on high quality physical education (PE) classroom instruction (Ntoumonis & Standage, 2009), researchers have begun to emphasize the need to foster a positive motivational climate as central to their programming to enhance youth’s meaningful and physically active learning experiences within ASPs (Fullmer et al., 2018; Zarrett et al., 2021). Several studies support that addressing motivational climate factors within ASPs could directly and/or indirectly influence adolescents’ PA participation (Fenton et al., 2016; Zarrett et al., 2022, 2018, 2015). However, few studies have examined the key mechanisms through which a positive motivational climate intervention can support increases in adolescent MVPA.
Self-determination Theory (Sdt): A Primer
According to Deci and Ryan (2000), the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are three basic sources for human motivation, while satisfaction determines individuals’ degree of self-determined motivation. The need for autonomy refers to people’s desire to be the cause agent in their world (Ryan et al., 2021). If a behavior satisfies the need for autonomy, he or she will feel self-determined in his/her action rather than feeling controlled or obliged to act. The need for competence is satisfied through the pursuit of autonomously motivated behaviors that lead to perceptions of success and control of outcomes (Ryan et al., 2021). The relatedness need refers to the innate desire to be supported by or supportive to others when engaging in the activity (Ryan et al., 2021). Deci and Ryan (2000) propose that the extent to which the three basic needs are satisfied determines the degree of autonomous motivation people will experience when doing an activity. A key assumption of SDT is the notion that SDT-based climate supports are among the most significant elements influencing motivational processes, related behavioral outcomes, and the three basic psychological needs (Fenton et al., 2017). This includes the degree to which an individual is inherently or “intrinsically” motivated to engage in an activity or whether they are more extrinsically driven or completely amotivated to engage in the activity (Ryan et al., 2021). The motivational climate is substantially shaped by the nature of the activities/tasks offered (e.g., appropriate challenge, inclusive, providing choices) and the influence of other actors’ interpersonal activities within the setting (e.g., staff, teachers, peers, and parents; Fenton et al., 2017). Integrating SDT-based climate supports through tailoring program activities to meet youth psychological needs and nurture positive interpersonal interactions, has been proposed to effectively promote motivation, efficacy, and engagement in PA (Ryan et al., 2021; Zarrett et al., 2022).
Motivation in SDT is conceptualized as different reasons that people engage in activities and the degrees to which an individual is inherently or “intrinsically” motivated to engage in an activity or whether they are more extrinsically driven or completely amotivated to engage in the activity (Ryan et al., 2021). Deci and Ryan (2000) propose that amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation form a continuum ranging from the lowest to the highest levels. Intrinsic motivation refers to a psychological state in which a person’s engagement in behaviors or activities is intrinsically regulated (Deci & Ryan, 2000). People who are intrinsically motivated toward an activity tend to engage in the activity for the sake of the activity itself and not as a means to achieve other internal or external purposes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Extrinsic motivation, in contrast to intrinsic motivation, a perception of a situation in which individuals engage in an activity to obtain certain desirable and separate outcomes. Based on the degree of self-determination, extrinsic motivation can be identified as controlled motivation or autonomous extrinsic motivation (Jenkins et al., 2020).
The autonomous extrinsic motivation, which is made up of integrated and identified regulations, is based on a sense of value – people view the activities as worthwhile, even if it’s not enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Jenkins et al., 2020). It has been shown that the distinction between autonomous extrinsic motivation from that of controlled motivation and intrinsic motivation is conceptually and empirically important for PA behavior change (Ryan et al., 2021; Jenkins et al., 2020). The two types of regulatory processes (i.e., identified and integrated) that define autonomous extrinsic motivation, are considered more internalized forms of extrinsic motivation. Identified regulation refers to individuals who perceive the activity as relevant to their personal goals or their self-concept and believe that the task is valuable (Ryan & Deci, 2017). For example, youth exercise because they appreciate the value that exercise can bring to their health. Integrated regulation is the highest or the most internalized form of extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2017). At this level, the behavior is integrated into self, and becomes a part of the individual’s identity. The individual totally embraces the value of the task even though he or she may not enjoy the task. For example, youth exercise because exercise is important to them or supports their identity as an athlete (Ryan et al., 2021).
Physical Activity Motivation As A Mechanism Of Behavior Change
Research findings have identified intrinsic motivation as an important positive indicator of youth’s participation in PA across age groups (Kalajas-Tilga et al., 2020; Sebire et al., 2013). In cross-sectional studies, Kalajas-Tilga et al. (2020) found that intrinsic motivation positively predicted MVPA among 297 adolescents (aged 11–15 years) from 17 schools. Sebire et al. (2013) found that intrinsic motivation was positively associated with children’s MVPA (aged 7–11 years) from 20 elementary schools. However, studies examining the relationship between changes in intrinsic motivation and its longitudinal impact on changes in PA participation are limited. Only a single study has been centered on addressing motivational climates changes on adolescents’ PA behavior change. Lonsdale et al. (2013) tested the effects of three motivational strategies (explaining the relevance of activities; providing choice from PA options selected by the teacher; providing equipment and free choice of activities) based on SDT in a cluster-randomized controlled trial project (Motivating Active Learning in PE) on 8th graders’ PA levels in PE class. The results showed that although the intervention did not influence students’ SDT motivations, students’ PA and autonomy increased during the choice-based teaching strategies in the intervention group. However, few studies have considered these relations among underserved and minoritized adolescence.
Given the internalized nature of autonomous extrinsic motivation (i.e., integrated within one’s value system or self-system), it is expected that this form of motivation would support continued youth engagement in MVPA, Although studies examining intrinsic motivation have consistently shown positive relations with PA accrual (Kalajas-Tilga et al., 2020; Sebire et al., 2013; Lonsdale et al., 2013), previous findings concerning the association between autonomous extrinsic motivation and PA are mixed. Fenton et al. (2017) developed and tested a six-week ASP sports-based intervention and, using a path model, found an empowering motivational climate that initial autonomous motivation positively predicted PA-related enjoyment, which was positively associated with daily MVPA among adolescents’ (aged 9–16 years). In contrast, Timo et al. (2016), using a longitudinal research design, found that initial autonomous extrinsic motivation did not have a statistically significant role in predicting 6 year later adolescents’ MVPA in PE class. Although the discrepancies between studies may be explained by variations in research design as well as variations PA contexts, the current findings suggest that more research is needed to examine autonomous extrinsic motivation as another potentially effective motivational orientation that we can nurture in youth to promote long-term increases in PA engagement.
Gender And Race As Predictors
Physical activity participation varies significantly by youth gender and race/ethnicity due to differences in socialization experiences and access to contextual affordances and tangible and emotional supports (and barriers) in which youth have access depending on these ascribed characteristics (Armstrong et al., 2018; Schulze et al., 2020; Zarrett et al., 2018, 2019). These differences highlight the significant disparities in PA among girls and Black and Hispanic adolescents who are less likely to meet 60 minutes daily MVPA recommendations compared to boys and White youth (Jago et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2013; Zarrett et al., 2018). In particular, girls worldwide consistently report significantly lower levels of PA than do boys and show steeper declines in PA from childhood to adolescence (Guthold et al., 2020; Pirrie et al., 2022). In addition to the relationship between gender and physical activity behavior, Black and Hispanic adolescents report less physical activity than white adolescents (Armstrong et al., 2018). Miller et al. (2019) found that white adolescents reported 1.1 to 2.1 more weekly hours of MVPA than non-white adolescents by using self-reported MVPA measurement. Therefore, powerful ASPs are needed to improve the learning outcomes of underprivileged youth and thus minimize the inequities (Armstrong et al., 2018).
In summary, two theoretical and empirical gaps in the SDT-related literature warrant the current study. First, although the correlational evidence on intrinsic motivation, autonomous extrinsic motivation, and adolescents’ MVPA have been established, there are few studies that examine changes in intrinsic motivation and autonomous extrinsic motivation resulting from participation in a social-motivational context intervention that supports adolescents’ need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and its impact on underserved adolescents’ daily MVPA change trajectory. Secondly, the effect of gender and race on at-risk adolescents’ changing daily MVPA trajectory are tested in this study given the significant disparities in PA observed among girls and Black and Hispanic youth. In summary, more studies are needed to further understand the role of self-determination motivations for increasing youth daily PA engagement, with particular attention to potential variations in these relations for youth who have been identified at greatest risk for inactivity, to inform the development of high-quality interventions within youth settings serving at-risk youth.
Guided by SDT, the purpose of this study was to determine the 16-week MVPA trajectory of underserved adolescents who participated in the Connect through PLAY intervention, whether there are variations in these trajectories by gender and race, and the effects of changes in adolescent intrinsic and autonomous extrinsic motivations over the 16-week intervention on the trajectory. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed in the current study: (a) to what extent does adolescents’ daily MVPA change from baseline to endpoint during a 16-week SDT-based intervention within ASPs, and does this change vary by gender and race? (b) to what extent does change in adolescent’s self-determined motivation (intrinsic and controlled) across the 16-week intervention influence the 16-week trajectory of their daily MVPA time?