3.1 Manpower
Users of the FFF equipment generally are familiar with design or engineering knowledge, because the use of printing equipment requires a basic knowledge for generating a printed element in FFF. Specifically, FFF equipment users can be divided into designers or engineers for the stage related to the component design. 3D printer designers, engineers, or technicians in operation are required for the component printing stage and the inspection process, and technicians are needed for the component finishing stage. Table 4 presents the results of the bibliographic and database search subjected to the "Fused Filament Fabrication and Manpower" and "Fused Deposition Modeling and Manpower" syntax.
Considering the results obtained by searching the databases and the most influential and dominating sites on the subject of Fused Filament Fabrication associated with workforce, it is possible to identify that the combination of the two key terms present a growing trend (See Fig. 5), that is, during the last ten years, the issue associated with trained personnel and the handling of printing equipment through FFF technology has received special interest among researchers from social, humanity, and engineering fields that have been focused on the skills and knowledge that the management and operation of FFF equipment demands.
Considering the fit of the proposed model with a determination coefficient of 93.92%, it is expected that the development of publications based on the use of the Fused Deposition Modeling, Fused Filament Fabrication and Manpower syntax are focused on the skills required for the industry grow according to Table 5.
Table 5
Projection of publications for the next six years
Year
|
Number of publications
|
2020
|
121
|
2021
|
154
|
2022
|
191
|
2023
|
232
|
2024
|
277
|
2025
|
325
|
Among the results obtained by the search, the term applied technology skills (ATS: Applied Technology Skills) is prominent, which are described as the skills that integrate people, processes, data, and devices that are useful for the operation of new technologies as well as their efficiency as a business strategy [10, 48, 49].
The projection of the skills required by 2030 according to Institute [50] are summarized in:
-
Demand for technological skills, both basic digital skills (knowledge on digital world, network monitoring, communication in digital environments, networking, knowledge recycling, global vision, and customer service) and advanced technological skills (quantitative analysis of data or regressions, intelligence Artificial, Cloud Computing, Data Scientist, Engineering and Data Warehousing, Metadata Design and Development base), all with a projected growth in demand of 55% by 2030.
-
Demand for social and emotional skills, employees are expected to have the social skills (active listening, assertiveness, emotional validation, empathy, negotiation skills, respect, credibility, compassion, positive thinking, emotional regulation, open-mindedness, patience, courtesy, and ability of expression), emotional skills (self-control, self-knowledge, positive thinking, empathy, and assertiveness), and leadership, which projects a development of 24% growth by 2030.
-
Demand for basic cognitive skills, it refers to attention, memory, self-awareness, reasoning, motivation, association capacity, cognitive flexibility, and problem solving, which with the development of new technologies their demand decrease in more than 15% by 2030.
-
Demand for manual and physical skills, known also as endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, agility, and power, which tend to decrease in 14% due to the design of the tasks, consequently, they tend to reduce elements that generate fatigue and stress.
-
On the one hand, the nature of the man-machine relationship that in the case of this research is a printer-operator relationship, the required skills are focused on manual skills that are required for the process of preparing and adjusting the printing equipment, a demand for cognitive abilities associated with homework attention and reasoning for problem solving. On the other hand, a specialized knowledge development that is focused on technological skills is required, since the operation of the equipment interface represents the ability to manage computer equipment, data management, and use of the network, which in contrast to the demand for social skills practically does not exist, because the user interaction with others is reduced to the exchange of only specific information.
3.2 Machinery
The development of new printing equipment has grown rapidly in recent years. The FFF equipment manufacturers have focused their efforts on improving equipment characteristics along with reducing costs. [51, 21, 22, 31]. Aiming to improve the quality of printed components, the new equipment features: high-quality and low-cost of components [23, 52, 36]. Table 6 presents the results obtained by searching for data associated with the combination syntax between “Fused Filament Fabrication and machinery” and “Fused Deposition Modeling and machinery”.
The growth of the FFF technology has led to the development of new research as well as reports on research journals and specialized web sites. To evidence the growth, Fig. 6 presents the records on the growth in terms of the FFF teams’ development. Also, it is possible to project with a coefficient determination of 98.59% a significant growth in terms of the number of developments registered in research sources. Table 7 shows the projection of publications expected for the next six years.
Table 7
Projection of publications for the development of FFF technology machinery
Year
|
Number of publications
|
2020
|
2989
|
2021
|
3655
|
2022
|
4388
|
2023
|
5188
|
2024
|
6054
|
2025
|
6986
|
The operation of an FFF printer is led by a simple method that is based on three main elements: a flat bed or printing plate in which the material is deposited to form the impression, a roll of raw material known as filament, and finally an assembly called extruder, which is made up of a nozzle, a motor, temperature generation elements, and temperature control elements.
Moreover, the evolution of the FFF printing equipment can be described as one of the most important achievements throughout its short history according to Savini, Savini [53].
-
1980 first development of the Cast Filament Printing equipment by Scott Crump.
-
1990, Fused Deposition Modeling or Fused Filament Fabrication 3D printers begin with the “Printing equipment at everyone's reach” marketing stage.
-
2005, the Rap Rap movement begins, which consists of opening operating codes of printing equipment to the community, this opening of codes and resources involves pre-manufacture printer components, component designs on web platforms to be replicated, operation and preparation of codes that are used in the pre-process stages.
-
2009, the patent registration of the first FDM print expires, thereby, achieving the opening and development of new companies in charge of replicating the printing technology for molten filament. Currently, brands diversify, as a result, the sale prices of printing equipment and expanding the offer of these equipment decrease.
-
Since the commercialization of printing equipment, developers have entered the competition to attract a larger market. Concerning this growth and development, the best printing equipment and its characteristics are advertised annually. The results obtained from the evaluation of the FFF printing equipment by Hanson [54] are presented in Table 8.
-
As it is mentioned, the development of printing equipment allows FFF printing technology to be more accessible to the market, managing to provide manufacturing equipment at low cost (from 200 US), with printing formats for 150 mm3 components, a low cost, and with an acceptable resolution (between 50 and 400 microns).
Table 8
The best FFF printer from January 2020 [54].
Name
|
Characteristics
|
Advantages
|
Disadvantages
|
XYZ printign da Vinci Mini+
|
Printing area 150x150x150mm. Minimum layer resolution 100 microns, maximum layer resolution 400 microns. Dimensions 390x335x360 mm. Weight 6.85 kg
|
Low price $ 173.20 US
Easy operation
|
The design of the printer makes it difficult to remove the printed object
|
Ultimaker 2+
|
Filament diameter: 2.85. Printing area 223x223x305mm. Minimum layer resolution 20 microns, maximum layer resolution 600 microns. Dimensions 342x493x588 mm. Weight 11.3 kg
|
Leader in the field of print quality.
Easy networking operation
|
Expensive $ 3,000 US
|
Crazy3DPrint CZ-300
|
Printing area 300x300x300mm. Minimum layer resolution 100 microns, maximum layer resolution 400 microns. Dimensions 534x503x582 mm. Weight 16.5 kg
|
Low price $249 US
Easy operation
Large printing platform
|
|
Prusa i3 MK3s
|
Printing area 250x210x210mm. Minimum layer resolution 50 microns, maximum layer resolution 350 microns. Dimensions 550x400x500 mm. Weight 7.00 kg
|
High print speed
Market leader for print quality
|
Open frame design
Price $ 1,000
|
LulzBot Mini 2
|
Printing area 160x160x180mm. Minimum layer resolution 50 microns, maximum layer resolution 400 microns. Dimensions 457x339x607, mm. Weight 6.85 kg
|
Easy operation
Open source
|
Open frame design
Price $ 1,375
|
Cel RoboxDual
|
Printing area 210x150x100mm. Minimum layer resolution 50 microns, maximum layer resolution 500 microns. Dimensions 410x340x240, mm.
|
Easy operation
Trustworthy
Low price $287 US
|
Requires filament with specific characteristics
|
Trilab DeltiQ2
|
Printing area 250x250x300mm. Minimum layer resolution 50 microns, maximum layer resolution depends on the nozzle. Dimensions 410x500x810, mm. Weight 10.0 kg
|
New technological era in printing equipment.
Versatile
Expandable
|
Complex machine
|
3.3 Materials
Printing materials are other of the most interesting elements involved in the development of FFF technology. Since its inception, the use of filament or thread has become the main characteristic of printing equipment, because the shape of the material is the only one that has undergone two changes, as well as having the presence of only two dimensions of material in the market: 1.75 mm and 2.85 mm. In the search for information associated with this factor in the FFF industry, it is possible to identify that along with the development of printing equipment, materials are the most developed factor in the field of research. Table 9 presents the results of the search based on the syntax between “Fused Filament Fabrication and materials” and “Fused Deposition Modeling and materials.”
Because of the materials development, it is possible to discard that the applications of greater focus are those that are used by the medical industry. In these applications the main focus is identifying publications concerning with the density of the polymer, the transition value associated with the temperature transition, resistance characteristics (Young's modulus), the tensile strength, the elongation point up to the break, the limit temperature defined for the decomposition point, and the ideal operating temperature.
In addition, it is evident that the materials development presents an ideal alternative for the growth of the printing industry using FFF technology. Figure 7 presents the evidence of this growth, where an exponential growth associated with the generation of results is observed, subjected to the search syntax “Fused Deposition Modeling and materials” and “Fused Filament Fabrication and materials.”
Based on the proposed model, the projection of the formally identified research resources for the next six years can be made. Table 10 shows the corresponding projection with a coefficient determination of 97.33%.
Table 10
Projection of research resources published for 2025 about the FFF and materials syntax
Year
|
Number of publications
|
2020
|
1871
|
2021
|
2341
|
2022
|
2866
|
2023
|
3444
|
2024
|
4077
|
2025
|
4764
|
The rapid development of the materials that are implemented in the FFF has different needs of users. Specifically, the use of polymers, such as PLA (Polylactic acid) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) are related to the attribute of hardness, in this sense, ABS is more rigid, therefore, the selection of this material depends on the model print that is subjected to high stresses.
On the other hand, the implementation of PLA is defined by the characteristics of the process, in which it is not necessary to isolate the process during the printing stage, since the material does not present changes when it is in contact with the environment during the printing process, while for the implementation of ABS, it is required to be isolated from the environment and with a controlled temperature during the printing process. In addition, under these circumstances, the development of materials has achieved a significant growth depending on the function the prototype is subjected and to the printing process. In order to synthesize the development of materials, their applications, and characteristics, Table 11 presents the materials implemented in the existing FFF processes and available for users by 2020 according to Technologies [55].
As it is previously mentioned, the development of materials implemented by the FFF technology is the area where the most developments have been registered, thereby, it provides the possibility of producing prototypes with different characteristics, mainly physical and mechanical.
Table 11
The best FFF materials from January 2020 [55].
Material
|
Applications
|
Features
|
Hydretel 3D4000FL
|
Useful for all wire and cable manufactures
It can be used as a copper insulation and fiber optics cable
Ideal for making automotive chassis suspension system parts
Flexibility, can be starched bidirectionally for maximum body weight distribution.
|
Halogen free
Corona resistant
Excellent resistance to flex fatigue
Great performance in oil ad wide range materials
Flexible with lower temperature range (35°C, -35°F.
Capable to work in higher temperature range (160°C, 320°F)
|
Hydretel 3d4100FL
|
Resistant impact in plastics with UV stability
Lower weight
Capable to work with lower higher temperature resistance
Flexibility after printing.
|
Resistance to damage caused by twisting and flexing
Light weight strength
Easy to print
Low warpage and shrinkage
Chemical resistance with strength
Superior durability
|
Zytel Nylon Polymer
|
Mobile phone housing and components
Gaming
Laptop and Tablet parts
Can be used as a wire insulation
|
Halogen free
Versatile
Great moisture and abrasion resistance
High quality finishing
Decrease shocks
Absorb vibration
Reduce wear
|
Carbon Fiber Nylon
|
Ideal for structural components high modulus.
Improved chemical resistance
Improved thermal resistance
Excellent surface quality
Ease of printing
|
High modulus Carbon Fiber
Semi aromatic polyamide
Lower moisture uptake
Improve chemical resistance
Less shrinkage
Low gloss surface
|
Wax
|
Can be used for printing mold and it features an excellent dimension stability
3D Lost wax casting
Allows to create dental molds & produce customizable jewelry of very high quality
|
Easy formability
Good machinability
Ductile
Superior Surface Quality
Clean Burnout
|
Polymethyl methacrylate
|
Its translucency and transparency make it the ideal solution where a clear part or object is the desired result
|
Excellent finish quality and clarity
Responds very well to post print finishing
Pure resin quality
|
TitanX
|
Ideal for applications that request high exhaustion perseverance
|
Warp-free
Optimized filament flowing behavior
Excellent adhesion to heated glass plate
Greatly improved mechanical properties and strength
High impact resistance
|
ApolloX
|
Used for outdoor-aerospace and automotive applications
|
UV resistant
Warp free printing
Thermal stability
Extremely high printing precision
|
PC Plus
|
Ideal for applications that require though mechanical properties.
|
Mechanical strength
Heat resistance
Optical Clarity
Good chemical solvent resistance
|
Alloy 910
|
Used to print frames, enclosures, parts that requires high strength and stiffness. Used in 3d forging, prosthetics, robotics, assemblies, jewelry printing.
|
High tensile profile
Constant strength under stress
Chemical resistance of a nylon
Certified for use in food handling
|
Plasticized Copolyamide TPE
|
Used to prints farts from solid prosthetics to complete cosplay wearable outfits, cell phone enclosures and highly flexible utility and mechanical parts.
|
High sturdy and durable material
It can handle stress at elevated temperatures
Wearable texture
Lustrous texture
Flexibility
|
Policarbonate
|
Useful in prototyping application where sheet metal lacks transparency, non-conductivity and insulation. Used in medical industry, automotive industry, electric and electronics, machinery, safety, office automatization equipment, household applications, optical and communications.
|
High impact strength
High temperature resistance
Less than half the density of glass
Light weight
Machine bendable at room temperature
Extremely durable
Nonconductive
Reduces glare
|
Transparent PLA
|
Used in transparent 3d models
|
Transparent clear finish
High strength
High toughness
High temperature resistance
|
Nylon
|
Is used in applications that request high exhaustion perseverance. Is used in aerospace and automotive applications
|
Higher strength
Extremely durable polymer
It handles stress at elevated temperatures.
|
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
|
It can be used to make lightweight, solid modeled products.
|
Strong and has high melting point
Mechanically strong and stable overt time
Very high impact strength & high tensile strength and stiffness
Good chemical resistance
Dimensional stability
Water permeable.
|
Polylactic Acid
|
Is used in food packing, bags, disposable tableware, upholstery, disposable garments, hygiene products.
|
Transparent
Strong
Ideal for small parts
Becomes soft around 50°C
|
High Impact Polystyrene
|
Is used for low strength structural applications such as housing and covers.
|
Good impact resistance
Excellent machinability
Good dimensional stability
Easy to sand, paint and glue
Low cost
FDA compliant
Low shrinkage value
Light weight
|
Polyvinyl alcohol
|
Is used as a supportive material with PC, ABS and PLA to get high resolution prototypes where aesthetics cannot be compromised. Is used generally in applications where plastic needs to be dissolved as a supportive material as a binding agent.
|
Water soluble
Incompressible and heat resistant
Low elongation and low flexible
High modulus and good durability
Improve layer hardness
Nontoxic
|
3.4 Methods
Unlike the rapid growth and development in the field of FFF materials and technology, research development has been focused on the methods implemented, but it has not evolved much in the past ten years. Table 12 presents the results of the matches obtained using the “Fused Deposition Modeling and methods” and “Fused Filament Fabrications and methods” syntax.
The results obtained from the databases and the internet sites identify variations in the methods, mainly based on the use of software for designing and pre-processing, optimization strategies of the component related to variations in the filling, orientation, and printing of the component, as well as to the follow-up activities of the printing process and post process.
In fact, with the results obtained from the bibliographic search and from the database, the graph in Fig. 8 is developed, which shows a clear trend towards the development of new methods applied to the FFF technology. It is worth mentioning that the modifications and records found are focused on small modifications and the use of instruments to adjust the principal equipment for the printing process.
According to the proposed model, it is possible to make a projection of the possible publications for the next six years. Table 13 was developed with a coefficient determination of 98.59%.
Table 13
Projection of research resources published for 2025 from the FFF and methods syntax
Year
|
Number of publications
|
2020
|
1337
|
2021
|
1649
|
2022
|
1993
|
2023
|
2371
|
2024
|
2783
|
2025
|
3228
|
In general, the method is used to manufacture components applying FFF technology, which is summarized in five stages. The first stage begins with the design and development of the part or component using a specialized design software, such as SolidWorks® [56], or Autocad® [57], among others. At this stage, computer-aided design and computer-aided engineering allow the designer to perform feasibility, strength, shape, and material analysis digitally on the designed element.
The second stage of the process consists of preparing the elements to be printed using a pre-process software, such as Repetier® [58], Cura® [59], or Makerbot® [60]. In this stage, the extension file must be imported in .STL (Standard Triangle Language) and specify the desired manufacturing properties, such as type of material, orientation, quality, resistance, among others.
The third stage is associated with manufacturing, in this stage the strength attributes associated with the type of material that is used and the quality of finish must be defined. Once the component is manufactured, the user decides to give the final finish, this is the fourth stage, therefore, the component is subjected to some processes for extracting excess material, applying layers or paint, among others.
Finally, in case of a batch small production with a different approach for prototyping, the manufacturer can perform quality inspection tests in the shipment for the final user, and in case that they are prototyping elements, the components are sent to the laboratories or to the research and development centers for their use. Figure 9 presents schematically the method that is used in the manufacture of components through the FFF technology, with the steps previously described.
3.5 Management
Regarding the management concept used as one of the five factors of the FFF technology development, the term of management has been directed, according to the results obtained, towards the impact that the use of technology will have on the supply chain. It has recently been identified that companies that implements this technology have started to create and manufacture a wide range of articles with new shapes, in which the versatility of the material, the quality of the printed component, the response times, as well as the component design flexibility is beyond the traditional production system. The management factor compared to the other four factors is the one that has the least evidence of publications associated with database and technological platforms. Table 14 shows the results that has been published during the last decade.
Despite the limited evidence about administration, the fifth factor from the FFF technology development tends to continue evolving. To proof this, the results of the publications are presented in Fig. 10.
The projections are optimistic regarding the modification of the supply chain due to the use of MA technologies, as well as the development of 3D printing within the new age of manufacturing. However, it must be established that manufacturing through FFF or any of the other AM technologies will immediately replace traditional manufacturing processes along with all the strategies established to achieve the administration of classic manufacturing systems.
In addition, the use of the FFF requires a management system that is not really different from the one that is used in the subtractive industry, in this case, the AM literature review and websites research, especially related to the FFF, demonstrate that the independence of the equipment makes the system manufacturing more agile, which is due to the amount of human resources that must be managed to achieve the printing of a component, the process of acquiring materials for printing, after-sales activities that are required in case the organization of printing through FFF needs them, as well as the minimum activities required for the FFF technology to operate properly from an individual manufacturing point of view to a small-scale manufacturing perspective.
According to the proposed model, it is possible to make a prediction about what is expected for the next six years, the results obtained are presented in Table 15, which have been estimated with the constructed model with a coefficient determination of 98.55%.
Table 15
Projection of research resources published for 2025 from the FFF and management syntax
Year
|
Number of publications
|
2020
|
315
|
2021
|
391
|
2022
|
474
|
2023
|
566
|
2024
|
666
|
2025
|
774
|
Finally, the administration activities of a single printing equipment are reduced to the administration of a single human resource, who has the capacity to perform all the required tasks to achieve the operation of the FFF equipment for a customized printing or low scale. This inherently projects the growth of the skills required by 2030 for FFF users, as well as a manufacturing system with a less complex and cheaper management structure.