Factors Responsible for Somali Universities Low Rankings: An Evidence-Based Review

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Factors Responsible for Somali Universities Low Rankings: An Evidence-Based Review

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Different factors affected the educational progress and quality of Somali Universities since the unfortunate civil war in 1988, followed by the collapse of the central state in 1991. The collapse of the central has severely dismantled all public social services in Somalia. As a result, the educational system of Somalia was not spared. Efforts by the local populations and the international community to reestablish the educational system to a pre-conflict level have yet to be sufficient, particularly in higher education. To that end, this paper reveals and documents some factors responsible for the low ranking of Somali universities. Some of these factors include a need for more suitable learning environments and facilities, research and publications, Industry income, international outlook, low percentage of budget allocation to education, etc. The abovementioned factors must be improved significantly to improve the performance and ranking of Somali Universities. One way to improve its performance is to increase government funding to higher education in its annual budget by 20.0%, coupled with increased community and international support.

The eruption of civil war in 1988 and the subsequent collapse of the central state in 1991 severely disrupted all public social services in Somalia. The education system in Somalia was destroyed. Prolonged periods of instability and intermittent conflict constrained the ability of local populations and the international community to rehabilitate the country’s educational facilities and resources. Destruction of the sector went far beyond the deterioration of physical infrastructure. It is estimated that more than 80% of the educated elite left the country since the conflict began (Lindley, 2008, as cited in Mohamed & Affan, 2012). This extended period of insecurity and instability has denied a generation of young Somali men and women the chance to attend formal education. Somalia now suffers from one of the lowest literacy rates in the world (Cummings & van Tonningen, 2003, as cited in Mohamed & Affan, 2012).

The education system in Somalia started to decline long before the civil war. In the aftermath of the war with Ethiopia in the late 1970s, and the subsequent economic collapse during the 1980s, policy development stagnated, with social services severely affected.

In recent years, as stability and security have improved in parts of the country, a diverse range of actors (including local communities, the Somali diaspora, regional and international NGOs, Islamic aid agencies, and the private sector) have made a significant contribution to the rehabilitation and development of the education sector. The relative peace and stability that prevailed in the self-declared Republic of Somaliland in the northwest of Somalia since 1991 allowed the re-establishment of the education sector in this region, notably better than other regions. In the northeastern part of Somalia, the semi-autonomous Puntland State of Somalia has also made significant progress in rebuilding the education sector since it was formed in 1998 (Mohamed & Affan, 2012). The prolonged period of insecurity, intermittent conflicts, and volatility of political control in the southern and central parts of Somalia meant progress has only been localized in specific areas of relative stability.

In terms of the higher education sector, there has been considerable growth. Shortly before the war, Somalia had only one state-owned university in Mogadishu and enrolled approximately 4000 students (Hoehne, 2010). There are now nearly 50 higher education institutions (HEIs) of different sizes and capacities functioning across the country and enrolling over 50,000 students (Citing). This exponential growth is attributed to the absence of a central government and solid local authorities in Somalia that have enabled and encouraged the privatization of the higher education sector. The exponential growth of the higher education sector, especially given the prolonged periods of insecurity experienced in parts of the country, challenges the conventional wisdom that social and economic development ceases in the absence of a central government (Lessen, 2007, as cited in Mohamed & Affan, 2012).

The absence of regulation by governing authorities in all three regions allowed low capacity of teaching staff that considerably compromised the quality of the existing higher education institutions; 86.0% of surveyed HEIs complained about the low capacity of teaching and administrative staff. This will likely impact the quality of education students receive and the qualification and competence of graduates seeking employment in both the public and private sectors.

Although the expansion of the higher education sector is notable throughout the country, there remains a lack of detailed information on the activities of HEIs. This baseline study provides a snapshot of HEIs in Somalia while analyzing the current state of the sector by providing the results of a survey conducted between February to June 2013 with 44 HEIs in South-Central, Puntland, and Somaliland. Similar findings were made in research that was carried out to discover the quality performance of Somali universities (Hoehne, 2010; Mohamed & Affan, 2012).

Historically, the government era Somalia had only one university, Somali National University (SNU). It is no longer now because of the civil war that erupted in 1991 in the country. SNU has 12 faculties: Education, Languages, Law, Economics, Political Science, Journalism, Geology, Industrial Chemistry, Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture, and Veterinary. The medium of instruction was English and Italian (Cassanelli & Abdikadir, 2008). There were international lecturers as well as international students at the university. George (1985) reported that Somali National University used to graduate an average of 700 students every year. The University workforce was equivalent to students; ILO (1987) stated that SNU has 445 full-time and 170 part-time lecturers.

Meanwhile, the staff-student ratio was 11:1. To improve the quality of education, the regime took many steps forward; as Abdi (1998) highlighted, instruction was given priority, hundreds of schools were built, and thousands of trained teachers were trained were employed. Thus, the goal was aimed at 100% literacy provision across Somalia. New initiatives were undertaken to achieve the vision and ensure good quality education (Abdullahi, 2004; Hoehne, 2010). The Somali language was written in Latin in 1972, and the government conducted a literacy campaign from 1973 to 1975. Furthermore, to improve the quality of education in 1982, the government allocated 11.2% of teaching out of the national GDP budget. After the government invested in good quality education, the outcome of the quality performance measurement of SNU was that: many graduates of Somali National University performed excellently at the national and international levels (Hoehne, 2010; Cassanelli & Abdikadir, 2008).

After independence, the civilian regimes that came to power were deeply entrenched in ethnicity-based political competitions, and incompetent individuals rose to influential positions (Eno et al., 2014). As a result, the civilian government did not give immediate consideration and the attention it deserved to the development of robust higher education institutions. Another consideration that distorted or marred the higher education areas was Somalia’s engagement in building a military power in the Horn of Africa to reclaim neighboring Ethiopia and Kenya's annexed territories it claimed. Additionally, although the country lacked an effective plan and infrastructure to develop a viable higher education program, the post-independence governments benefited from various scholarships offered to Somali students by friendly countries, mainly Italy. The combination of these factors and the meager resources of the country, as some analysts suggest, might have contributed to the civil administrations’ disdain of higher education—disdain that had its roots in colonial policies aimed at stunting the intellectual and political development of the colonized people (Eno et al., 2014; Eno et al., 2015).

Quality Education

The civil war in 1991 led to the collapse of the governmental system, and the country largely remained in conflict Eno et al. (2014. As mentioned before, all government infrastructures and services were looted or destroyed during the civil war. The civil war also damaged Somali National University (SNU). The ongoing political instability, the continuation of the displacement of people, the looting of equipment, and the destruction of educational infrastructure have greatly affected the quality of education in Somalia UNDP (2003). Besides that, other challenges were reported; Somali institutions still need to develop a new curriculum since 1990, and higher education institutions were using textbooks published 20 years ago UNDP (2003). The lack of adequate facilities and the use of old traditional teaching materials caused many to underestimate the quality of education. Furthermore, many students and parents needed more confidence in the quality of education in Somalia.

Poor educational quality is not the only problem; other challenges are reported, such as a lack of good leadership. According to UNICEF (2011), the education sector in Somalia experienced shortages of qualified principles. To have good quality education and t to produce students who can compete in the labor market, Somali universities need proper materials and a workforce. EFA Global Monitoring (2005) declared that schools needed more teachers, advanced textbooks, and enough teaching and learning materials to do an adequate job. In the case of good quality education at Somali universities, challenges were faced regarding the workforce (UNICEF, 2011).

Brain Drain

UNDP (2003) reported that more than one million Somali people lived outside the country in diasporas. These included scholars and professional people. Brain drains as a challenge to the total workforce was not only reported by the United Nations. However, other international organizations also said the same problem locally (citing). Moreover, the brain drain has also affected the quality of education at Somali universities. The Ministry of higher education stated that most graduates hope to serve the nation and run away from the country to survive and get a better life. World Bank in 2007 reported that challenges of African universities are mainly shortages of the workforce. However, Concern World (2006) said there is a shortage of teachers in Somalia, and students do not have qualified and trained teachers, which is reflected in the teachers and student ratio (UNDP, 2003; Hoehne, 2010). Even though the shortage and demand for lecturers were highly reported, only some scholars want to remain in the country, and those who stay and their sacrifices sometimes put them in a challenging situation (Mohamed & Affan, 2012). Some of these challenges include losing their lives.

The situation of the quality of education got worse when the Minister of Interior reported in 2010 that the university convocation ceremony experienced some suicide bomb attacks, and many people were killed, including 23 people from the ministry of education, ministry of health, six graduate students, doctors, university lecturers, parents, and other participants. It is agreed that numerous challenges affect the quality of the education sector. However, there is still some progress made. Ministry of Education in 2011 announced that it is the right of Somali citizens to get a good quality education (Mohamed & Affan, 2012; Hoehne, 2010). However, in this paper, some factors that contributed to the low ranking of Somali Universities are studied after an extensive review of related literature.

This study employs an evidence-based review of the related literature and studies different rankings metrics used by the most prominent publishing houses to rank universities worldwide. The literature studied was critically reviewed, and the results were presented as blocks and tables in the Introduction and Literature Review sections.

Mohamed & Affan (2012) studied the quality performances of Somali universities. The research was conducted using qualitative methods such as interviews. Some of the issues the paper discussed and identified were that Somali universities needed to improve (what) and performed poorly and offered the solution to these identified challenges. The findings encouraged developing and re-evaluating the quality performance of Somali universities to improve their outputs. It was concluded that the research findings would help enhance Somalia university's quality performance.

An analysis of higher education in Somaliland was conducted by Abdullahi (2013), and a survey was carried out to identify some problems and progress recorded. It was explained that significant growth in the higher education sector occurred between 2004 and 2012. It was further revealed that Over 50,000 students are currently enrolled at HEIs across the country. It was also revealed that most students were enrolled in information technology (IT) and business administration courses. The finding also revealed that many HEIs operate without a library, IT facilities, or a science laboratory. It was concluded that low research outputs and poor lecturer-student ratio led to the low ranking of Somali universities, among other things.

A study aimed to provide an overview discussion on the ongoing trends in the higher education of Somalia. Some of their findings included the emergence and the proliferation of new privately owned higher and tertiary level academic institutions, which is changing the landscape of higher education in post-conflict Somalia (Eno et al., 2015). It was further revealed that although these community-initiated educational establishments are making tremendous contributions to the higher education sector, particularly in the absence of an effective national government, one can argue that much remains to be addressed regarding ensuring, monitoring, and evaluating their quality. So, there is a need for a key institution for accreditation and the provision of credentials and certifications for existing educational establishments.

According to the study portals (2022), there are five reasons university rankings could have been better. “Whether it is international university rankings like World University Rankings (by Times Higher Education), Academic Ranking of World Universities (by Shanghai University), QS Rankings (by Top Universities), or local ones like U.S. News Rankings, these lists of prestigious institutions bring a lot of buzz, attention and potential stress to prospective students still considering their study options.” The study listed them as follows: The university popularity contest, Differences between ranked universities are not always apparent, each university ranking uses its criteria, some crucial factors are not measured or cannot be measured, and finally, a degree with prestige vs. getting the education you like.

According to Shanghai Jiao Tong University (2022), six indicators were used to rank world universities. First: The teaching and learning environment from the student and academic perspective Second: Research volume, income, and reputation (from academic reputation survey), thirdly: Number of citations (as indexed in Web of Science), fourthly: Industry income Fifthly: Ratio of international to domestic students and staff, and international collaboration, and finally: by viewing the World University Rankings website. According to Times Higher Education (2022), In addition to browsing universities by overall rank or searching for a specific institution, you can sort the table by the five metrics to make a decision based on particular priorities. Thus: Teaching is also called learning environment, Research output, Citations, also known as research influence, Industry income, and international outlook.

According to Laura (2022), Institutions are assessed across six categories (or indicators) to effectively capture university performance, including academic and employer reputation, faculty/student ratio, and research citations to help you make the best decision for your future. It was further explained that the QS World University Rankings provide a starting point for discovering your dream university by quickly finding and comparing the institutions that interest you. You can compare the reputation of universities worldwide and filter the selection by category and region. The QS rankings can give you an idea of teaching quality, student population; employability factors, research, and diversity, but they cannot choose for you. Further research is recommended to gain a bigger picture of what it is like to study at the universities you are interested in.

According to Wikipedia (2022), University rankings are typically conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments, or academics. In addition to entire ranking institutions, specific programs, departments, and schools can be ranked. Some rankings consider wealth, excellence in research, selective admissions, and alums' success. Rankings may also consider various combinations of actions of specialization expertise, student options, award numbers, internationalization, graduate employment, industrial linkage, historical reputation, and other criteria.

According to TC Global. (2022). QS World University Rankings is the most widely viewed university ranking globally. Produced by Quacquarelli Symonds, it has published rankings annually since 2004. In 2021 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Oxford, Stanford University, Cambridge, and Harvard University ranked in the top 5. QS Ranking asks 50,000 global employers which institutions supply the best or the most competent, innovative, and effective graduates into the workforce and sends surveys to over 100,000 academic experts who are asked to mark the research excellence of universities barring their own. They weigh multiple factors in building the ranks, such as Academic reputation, Employer reputation, Faculty/student ratio, Citations per faculty, international faculty ratio, and international student ratio—similarly, TC Global. (2022) explained that Times Higher Education World University Rankings uses 13 carefully calibrated performance indicators to provide a comprehensive and balanced comparison by deriving bibliometrics (or citations) from Elsevier’s Scopus database trusted by students, academics, universities, and industry leaders to understand the quality of research and its influence that sets an institution apart. These parameters are Teaching, Research, Citations, International outlook, and Industry Income.

Furthermore, TC Global. (2022) explained that the Academic Ranking of World Universities ranks more than 2000 universities and eventually publishes the best 1000. Their parameters include: The number of alums winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals, the number of staff winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals, the number of highly cited researchers selected by Clarivate Analytics, the number of articles published in the journals of Nature and Science, the number of articles indexed in the Science Citation Index – Expanded and Social Sciences Citation Index, the per capita academic performance of a university. It was concluded that these rankings prove helpful for students who want to gauge an institution's strengths. Shrestha (2022) discussed the two major university-ranking publishers: QS University rankings and the Times Higher Education University rankings. It was further explained that three things affected their rankings. Thus, learning environment, Research output, Citations, and Industry income are the factors used by the two to rank universities worldwide.

According to QS University Rankings (2022), the QS World rankings of the top ten universities worldwide in 2022 are given in Table 1. It is noticeable that all the top ten universities reside within the United States of America (US) and the United Kingdom (UK). No University from Asia, Arabian or African country is among the top ten according to this ranking.

Table 1

QS World Rankings of Top Ten Universities around the World
Rank	University	Score
1	Massachusetts Institute of Technology, US	96.8
2	Stanford University, US	95.3
3	ETH-Zurich-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Swaziland	95.3
4	Harvard University, US	95.0
5	University of Cambridge, UK	95.0
= 6	University of California, US	94.1
= 6	University of Oxford, UK	94.1
8	Imperial Collage London, UK	90.8
9	Georgia Institute of technology, US	90.2
10	Columbia University, US	89.0

The Top ten universities in Somalia according to the ranking web of university (2022) are presented in Table 2. It is worth noting that no Somalian University is among the best 800 Universities in the world. According to this ranking, the best university in Somalia is SIMAD University Mogadishu, which came to 8091 worldwide.

Table 2

The Top Ten Somalian Universities World Ranking of Web of Universities
SN	World Ranking	University
1	8091	SIMAD University Mogadishu
2	12052	Amoud University Borama
3	13244	University of Hargeisa
4	14669	University of Somalia
5	14896	Mogadishu University
6	15431	Eelo University
7	15441	Red Sea University Bosaso
8	17535	Puntland State University
9	18190	Somali National University Mogadishu
10	18632	Abaarso Tech University Hargeisa

The Top ten University in Somalia, according to Uni Rank (2022), is presented in Table 3. This Ranking only considers Somali Universities in its 2022 rankings. The best University in Somalia, according to this ranking, is Amoud University, located in Borama Town, Somalia. The three factors considered for these rankings are as follows:

i. Being chartered, licensed, or accredited by the appropriate Somali higher education-related organization

ii. Offering at least four-year undergraduate degrees (bachelor's degrees) or postgraduate degrees (master’s or doctoral degrees)

iii. Delivering courses predominantly in a traditional, face-to-face, non-distance education format.

Table 3

The Top Ten Universities in Somalia According to Uni Rank, 2022
SN	Universities	Town/Location
1	Amoud University	Borama
2	Mogadishu University	Mogadishu
3	SIMAD University	Mogadishu
4	University of Hargeisa	Hargeisa
5	University of Burao	Burao
6	Eelo University	Borama
7	Benadir University	Mogadishu
8	Puntland State University	Garowe
9	Golis University	Hargeisa
10	Somali National University	Mogadishu

According to the literature reviewed so far, it was revealed that many factors/reasons led to the Somali University ranking. These factors are discussed in detail in the Discussion Section of this paper. The finding in this paper revealed that no Somali University is among the best 1000 universities in the world. Table 1 shows that all the top ten universities reside within the United States of America (US) and the United Kingdom (UK). No Somali University, Arabian or African country is among the top ten according to this ranking. It was further revealed that no university in Somalia was ranked 800 universities worldwide according to the ranking web of university (2022), as presented in Table 2. According to this ranking, the best university in Somalia is SIMAD University Mogadishu, which came to 8091 worldwide. Other well-known ranking institutions, such as the University Higher Times ranking, and QS ranking, have ranked Somali University far at the bottom. It was further revealed, as contained in Table 3, that considering Somali Universities alone, the best University in Somalia according to Uni Rank (2022) world ranking is Amoud University, located in Borama Town, Somalia.

Based on the review, it is evident that so many factors/reasons lead to the low ranking of Somali Universities. Some of the reasons that led to the low ranking of Somalian universities are discussed in this section.

Good Learning Environment: One factor used to rank universities around the globe is the students’ learning environment. According to QS University Rankings (2022) and other similar publishers, students’ learning environment is one of the factors used to measure universities' performances worldwide. CompLetcher (2007) stated that the main factors that can satisfy students and attract them to study in Somali universities are lacking: curriculum, class instructions, quality teaching, extra-curricular activities, student advisory, instructor feedback, and lack of computing facilities. It was further stated: “I was lecturing in one of the Somali universities, and it has only one small library, and there are poor internet facilities. Similarly, most Somali universities share similar problems with our university. Other problems are weakness in the curriculum, all our curriculum right from primary to university level was borrowed facilities from other countries’ curriculum, and these curriculums do not cover/reflect Somali needs”. Therefore, these facilities that can attract national and international students to study in Somali universities are lacking or not provided. Hence, the poor learning environment is one of the reasons or factors that lead to the low ranking of Somali universities. In a similar scenario, Nesset (2007) argued that good university administrators must encourage students to continue learning to reach the goal of good quality. The author suggested that universities must understand students' needs and wants to meet their quality expectations. The literature reported that factors could distract students from studying in Somali Universities. Hence, the reasons Somali-based students go to other countries where there are suitable learning environments.

Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals: Another parameter that is used to rank universities higher around the globe, according to TC Global (2022), is the Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals. Universities that won these prizes rank higher in the global index. They include: The number of alumni winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals and the number of staff winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals in the university. However, no Somali University is listed among the winning institutions. Therefore, this is another reason Somali universities get low ranking every year.

Citation

The number of highly cited researchers selected by Clarivate Analytics, the number of articles published in the journals of Nature, Science, Scopus indexed, Google scholar citations, and research gates citations. Additionally, the number of articles indexed in the Science Citation Index – Expanded and Social Sciences Citation Index and a university's per capita academic performance are all used to rank universities worldwide (TC Global, 2022). Unfortunately, Somali university scholars have less number of citations in indexed journals. This is another reason for the lower ranking of Somali universities, even among some African counties. TC Global. (2022) stated that bibliometrics, also known as citations from Elsevier’s Scopus database trusted by students, academics, universities, and industry, leads to understanding the quality of research and its influence that sets an institution apart. These parameters are Teaching, Research, Citations, International outlook, and Industry Income. Citation rankings prove helpful for students who want to gauge an institution's strengths before they can apply to study in such institutions of higher learning. It was further explained that three things affected their rankings. The findings in this paper follow that of Shrestha (2022); Thus, learning environment, Research output, Citations, and Industry income are the factors used by most ranking institutions worldwide to rank universities worldwide. Other factors used to rank universities lacking in Somali Universities are Academic reputation, Employer reputation, Faculty/student ratio, Citations per faculty, international faculty ratio, and finally, international student ratio (TC Global. 2022).

Other reasons for Somali University's law ranking, as explained by Shanghai Jiao Tong University (2022), were used to rank world universities. Firstly: Teaching and learning environment from the student and academic perspective. Secondly: Research volume, income, and reputation (from academic reputation survey). Thirdly: The number of citations (as indexed in Web of Science); fourthly: Industry income. Fifthly: The ratio of international to domestic students and staff, international collaboration, and finally: by viewing the World University Rankings website. These factors lack higher scores in Somali universities, hence the reasons for their low annual ranking.

Industries income and International Outlook: These are some primary reasons Somali Universities are ranked low annually. The findings in this paper follow the one put forward by Times Higher Education (2022) Thus: Teaching, also called the learning environment, research output, Citations, also known as research influence, Industry income, and international outlook are significant factors used to measure the performance of universities around the globe.

Lack of Proper Internet and IT facilities

This paper revealed that IT facilities/gadgets and excellent internet connectivity are lacking in Somali Institutions. This has affected the research output of scholars and lecturers working in these institutions. This follows the findings made by Abdullahi (2013) that a large number of HEIs operate without a library, IT facilities, or a science laboratory.

From the results obtained, some factors responsible for the low ranking of Somali universities were studied and reported accordingly. It was concluded that some factors that affected the ranking of Somali universities include: suitable learning Environments, winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals, research and publications to be Cited, industry income, international outlook, Lack of Proper Internet and IT facilities, and low percentage of budget allocation to education. It was further concluded that the ranking of Somali universities is abysmal because no Somali University is among the best 1000 universities in the world as indicated by different ranking publishers. It was further concluded that poor allocation to education is the common factor affecting all other African country's educational systems. It is also suggested that government must fund tertiary education by increasing its annual budget to at least 20% of education to improve the performance of Somali Universities. It was also recommended that, for Somali Universities to have higher ranking output, the factors mentioned above must be significantly enhanced in Somali universities. Therefore, both individuals and government must contribute to the educational development of Somalia.

Conflict of Interest

All authors declared that they have no competing interests.

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Factors Responsible for Somali Universities Low Rankings: An Evidence-Based Review

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Abstract

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Methodology

3.0 Literature Review

4.0 Findings Overview

5.0 Discussion

6.0 Conclusion & Recommendations

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References

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