Demographic description of informants and collection sites
The present study successfully documented the plant species with ethnoveterinary importance in the study area. In our survey, a total of 58 informants belonging to the age group between 25–84 were interviewed for the documentation of traditional veterinary knowledge from twelve villages of district Poonch (Table 1). Most of the informants were males, i.e., 44 (75.86%), and the rest 14 (24.14%), were females. All these informants were from the tribal community of Gujjar and Bakarwal of the study area. The majority of them belong to the age group 45–74 yrs. Moreover, poorly educated people, i.e., up to primary standard were dominant in the study. The informants' participation below 45 yrs was less, whereas; older informants contributed a major portion of the knowledge depicting higher possession of ethnoveterinary knowledge. Also, female informants' proportion was low because they are quite taciturn and interact comfortably only with a female researcher.
Table 1
Demographic description of the informants
INFORMANTS
|
|
|
Female
|
14 (24.14%)
|
|
Male
|
44 (75.86)
|
|
Age Group
|
Female
|
Male
|
25–34
|
2 (14.28%)
|
3 (6.81%)
|
35–44
|
2 (14.28%)
|
2 (4.55%)
|
45–54
|
4 (28.57%)
|
6 (13.64%)
|
55–64
|
5 (35.71%)
|
20 (45.45%)
|
65–74
|
1 (7.14%)
|
8 (18.18%)
|
75–84
|
-
|
5 (11.36)
|
Educational Level
|
Female
|
Male
|
Never attended school
|
5 (35.71%)
|
11 (25%)
|
Attended school for 1–5 classes
|
3 (21.42%)
|
13 (29.54%)
|
Attended school for 6–10 classes
|
4 (28.57%)
|
7 (15.9%)
|
Intermediate (12th class)
|
2 (14.28%)
|
6 (13.63%)
|
Graduate
|
-
|
5 (11.36%)
|
Postgraduate
|
-
|
2 (4.54%)
|
Diversity of ethnoveterinary flora
The present investigation represents 31 plant species belonging to 30 genera and 24 families, which are being used by the tribal as ethnoveterinary plants (Table 2). Ranunculaceae was the most dominant family, represented by three species, followed by Amaryllidaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, and Urticaceae (2 species each) whereas, the rest of the families were represented by single species. Ahmad et al. [29] previously documented 32 ethnoveterinary plants encompassing 19 families from the Kashmir Himalayan region. A comprehensive survey of Sharma et al. [15] from district Kathua of Jammu division (J&K) reported 72 ethnoveterinary plants, with Fabaceae being the most represented one. Similarly, plant species of Euphorbiaceae were found to be dominantly used in ethnoveterinary practices in Rajasthan [30]. The recent review article of Sikarwar and Tiwari [6] reported 270 plant species of 84 families used by rural tribes and Central India people for ethnoveterinary practices. In the present study, the maximum plant species used were herbs (70.97%), followed by trees and shrubs (12.9% each), and climbers (3.23%), indicating that herbs are the primary source of ethnoveterinary medicine for the Gujjar and Bakarwal tribes in the region, which is in line with the earlier studies conducted in J&K and India [31, 29]. However, some previous studies also reported trees to be mostly used for veterinary purposes [32, 33].
Table 2 List of ethnoveterinary plants used by Gujjars and Bakarwals along with UV and RFC
Botanical name/ family
|
Voucher Number
|
Habit
|
Local name
|
Part used
|
GPS Coordinates
|
Altitude (masl)
|
Ethnoveterinary use
|
Use reports
|
UV
|
RFC
|
Achillea millefolium L./ Asteraceae
|
JUH125
|
H
|
Rainthal/ Chau
|
Root
|
33°36'31"N 74°18'27"E
|
2064
|
Root is ground and given to cattle on snakebite. (4)
|
4
|
0.07
|
0.07
|
Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf/ Ranunculaceae
|
JUH105
|
H
|
Patrees
|
Root
|
33°51'29"N 74°20'22"E
|
2534
|
About 50- 80 gram powdered or crushed root is given to buffaloes, ox and horse against snake bite (2)
|
2
|
0.03
|
0.03
|
Acorus calamus L./ Acoraceae
|
JUH040
|
H
|
Bach
|
Root
|
33°48'14"N 74°05'05"E
|
1061
|
The root is mixed with salt and mirch and given to horses to cure stomach pain (2)
|
2
|
0.03
|
0.03
|
Allium cepa L./ Amaryllidaceae
|
JUH085
|
H
|
Payaz
|
Bulb
|
33°46'27"N 74°03'57"E
|
1018
|
The bulb is powdered and given orally to animals to treat snake bite (5)
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Allium sativum L./ Amaryllidaceae
|
JUH115
|
H
|
Thoom
|
Bulb
|
33°46'26"N 74°04'25"E
|
1002
|
Bulbs are powdered and given with milk and ghee to cure pyrexia (5)
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume/ Araceae
|
JUH004
|
H
|
Sapp ni makk
|
Corm
|
33°35'51.8"N 74°24'24.4"E
|
2073
|
Underground part is powdered and given orally to cattle to cure Pyrexia (8). A paste of same powder is applied on the affected part to treat snakebite (6).
|
14
|
0.24
|
0.14
|
Berberis lycium Royle/ Berberidaceae
|
JUH005
|
S
|
Simblu
|
Stem, Root
|
33°35'47.4"N 74°24'23.6"E
|
2097
|
The stem bark is dried and powdered. This powder is used externally to treat maggots in wounds (5). Outer bark of the root is dried, powdered and a paste is prepared and applied on wounds in cattle (7). Root bark powder is also given orally in small doses to treat Fractures (8).
|
20
|
0.34
|
0.14
|
Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene/ Polygonaceae
|
JUH032
|
H
|
Masloon
|
Whole plant, Root
|
33°36'32"N 74°23'17"E
|
1748
|
Rhizome given to animals as galactagogue (20)
|
20
|
0.34
|
0.34
|
Brassica rapaL./ Brassicaceae
|
JUH084
|
H
|
Sareyaan/ khal
|
Leaves
|
33°45'11"N 74°04'29"E
|
942
|
The residue of seeds left after extraction of oil (khal) is fed to animal as galactagogue (6).
|
6
|
0.10
|
0.10
|
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton/ Apocynaceae
|
JUH143
|
H
|
Akk
|
Leaves
|
33°45'47"N 74°03'37"E
|
964
|
Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS): Two and a half leaves along with 375 g of butter are given to eat orally. Two and a half leaves with latex are tied on swellings (4)
|
4
|
0.07
|
0.07
|
Cannabis sativa L./ Cannabaceae
|
JUH015
|
H
|
Pangg
|
Leaves
|
33°40'21"N 74°03'34"E
|
1180
|
The whole plant is ground and given orally to treat body pains in cattle (4). Powdered leaf balls (peda) are given to cattle to treat intestinal worms (5).
|
9
|
0.16
|
0.09
|
Capsicum annuum L./ Solanaceae
|
JUH008
|
H
|
Merch
|
Fruit
|
33°40'15"N 74°08'34"E
|
1264
|
Mature fruits are powdered and given with butter milk (lassi) to cattle to cure cough (6). Fruits are given orally to treat pyrexia in cattle (8).
|
14
|
0.24
|
0.14
|
Clematis grata Wall./ Ranunculaceae
|
JUH097
|
C
|
beladi
|
Leaves
|
33°35'18"N 74°17'27"E
|
2856
|
Juice of leaf is used to expel worms from wounds in cattle. (5)
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers./ Poaceae
|
JUH016
|
H
|
Khabbal
|
Root, Whole plant
|
33°43'39.6"N 74°02'24.6"E
|
978
|
A paste prepared from the whole herb is applied on wounds to treat them in cattle (8).
|
8
|
0.14
|
0.14
|
Ficus carica L./ Moraceae
|
JUH070
|
S
|
Tarkkani kembri
|
Leaves
|
33°35'19"N 74°17'29"E
|
2149
|
3 leaves are given to pregnant cattle for easy delivery (5).
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet/ Geraniaceae
|
JUH111
|
H
|
Rattanjot
|
Root
|
33°51'38"N 74°20'07"E
|
2337
|
Root is directly given to animals to cure pyrexia (4) and as galactagogue (6)
|
6
|
0.10
|
0.17
|
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis/ Urticaceae
|
JUH007
|
H
|
Kayari
|
Root, Leaves
|
33°35'39.4"N 74°24'33.0"E
|
2172
|
Roots are dried, powdered, and given with milk to cattle to cure Retention of the placenta (8). A paste prepared from powdered leaves is applied externally to treat wounds in cattle (6)
|
14
|
0.24
|
0.14
|
Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm. ex Burret/ Malvaceae
|
JUH009
|
T
|
Dhamman
|
Leaves
|
33°40'10"N 74°08'34"E
|
1257
|
Fresh leaves are given orally to treat Retention of the placenta in cows and buffaloes (5).
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Mentha longifolia (L.) L./ Lamiaceae
|
JUH011
|
H
|
Pootna
|
Leaves
|
33°44'028"N 74°05'25.2"E
|
1122
|
A decoction of leaves in lipton tea is given to cattle to cure pyrexia (7).
|
7
|
0.12
|
0.12
|
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb./ Phytolaccaceae
|
JUH103
|
H
|
Kafal
|
Root
|
33°51'32"N 74°20'19"E
|
2488
|
Root given to animals to cure inability to inseminate (8).
|
8
|
0.14
|
0.14
|
Primula denticulata Sm./ Primulaceae
|
JUH134
|
H
|
Lattar-phul
|
Flower
|
33°51'31"N 74°20'31"E
|
2563
|
Flower is pounded and given to livestock on snakebite (5).
|
5
|
0.09
|
0.09
|
Prunus armeniaca L./ Rosaceae
|
JUH055
|
T
|
Haari/ Charota
|
Fruits, Seeds
|
33°42'23"N 74°11'02"E
|
1501
|
Dried seeds are powdered and given to cattle to kill intestinal worms (8)
|
8
|
0.14
|
0.14
|
Punica granatum L./ Lythraceae
|
JUH010
|
T
|
Darunni
|
Fruit
|
33°41'41"N 74°06'46"E
|
1347
|
The fruit rind is dried, powdered, and given orally to cattle to treat Prolapse (10).
|
10
|
0.17
|
0.17
|
Ranunculus bulbosus L./ Ranunculaceae
|
JUH013
|
H
|
Maleen
|
Root
|
33°40'22"N 74°03'34"E
|
1792
|
Roots are dried, powdered, and given orally to diseased cattle to treat Pneumonia (10). Roots are ground in water and given orally to expel intestinal worms in cattle (8).
|
18
|
0.31
|
0.17
|
Rumex nepalensis Spreng./ Polygonaceae
|
JUH006
|
H
|
Hula/ halfali
|
Root, Leaves
|
33°35'31.3"N 74°24'39.6"E
|
2153
|
Roots are dried, powdered and given to cattle with buttermilk to treat general weakness (28). Roots are dried, powdered, and mixed with buttermilk for three days. After three days, it is given to cattle for three days to treat cough (14).
|
42
|
0.72
|
0.48
|
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne./ Rutaceae
|
JUH142
|
H
|
Nera/ patla
|
Leaves, Root
|
33°37'18"N 74°24'05"E
|
2310
|
Leaves are boiled and are given to cattle to cure pyrexia (11). Leaves are dried, powdered, and given with milk to cattle to treat cold (6). A paste prepared from powdered roots is applied externally to treat fractures in animals (8).
|
25
|
0.43
|
0.19
|
Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble/ Ulmaceae
|
JUH002
|
T
|
Manu
|
Leaves
|
33°44'08.6"N 74°00'48.3"E
|
930
|
Leaves are given with butter (in summer)/ seeds of Trigonella sp. (in winter) to eat orally for treating prolapse in cattle (8).
|
8
|
0.14
|
0.14
|
Urtica dioica L./ Urticaceae
|
JUH037
|
H
|
kayari
|
Root
|
33°36'34"N 74°23'17"E
|
1735
|
Roots are given to cattle as galactagogue (12)
|
12
|
0.21
|
0.21
|
Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC./ Viburnaceae
|
JUH046
|
S
|
kilmish
|
Seeds
|
33°54'07"N 74°18'02"E
|
2157
|
Fresh leaves are given orally to treat constipation (6)
|
6
|
0.10
|
0.10
|
Vitex negundo L./ Lamiaceae
|
JUH001
|
S
|
Bana
|
Leaves
|
33°43'46.6"N 74°00'55.1"E
|
959
|
Leaves are given orally to cattle to cure pyrexia (8)
|
8
|
0.14
|
0.14
|
Zea mays L./ Poaceae
|
JUH072
|
H
|
Makk
|
Fruit
|
33°35'21"N 74°17'01"E
|
1888
|
Maize flour is given with water to treat Foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle (3)
|
3
|
0.05
|
0.05
|
Parts used, preparation form, and route of administration
The most used plant part in herbal preparation was root (35.14%), followed by leaf (32.43%), fruit (10.81%), seed, and whole plant (5.41% each), and bulb, corm, flowers, and stem (2.7% each) (Fig. 2). In contrast, most of the previous studies carried out in J&K and other states of India reported leaves as the significant plant parts used in the ethnoveterinary practices [34–36, 15,). In the present study, the oral mode was observed to be the dominant mode for the administration of the herbal preparations, with 24 species exclusively consumed in oral form, which concurs with Mandal and Rahaman [37] reports. Topical, as well as both oral and topical administration methods were recorded for two and five species each, respectively. The Gujjars and Bakarwals tribes mostly believe that the herbal preparation's concentrated dose depends upon the severity of an ailment and animal size; therefore, the doses of the remedies were found highly variable in the present investigation.
Therapeutic values
Livestock is an integral part of tribal communities of Gujjar and Bakarwal in the study area and plays an important social and economic role in their life. Therefore, these communities still rely on ethnoveterinary medicine for the treatment of various ailments viz., pneumonia, pyrexia, constipation, vermicidal, stomach pain, accouchement, galactagogue, inability to inseminate, prolapse, wounds, retention of placenta, general weakness, fracture, FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia, maggots in wounds, body pain, cold, cough, and snakebite. Most of the ailments belong to gynecological/ andrological, dermatological, gastrointestinal, and liver-related issues. The treated animals documented in the present study were buffalo, ox, horse, cows, sheep, and goat.
The majority of plant species in the present investigation have been used to cure a single disease, showing these species' usefulness and reliability for treatment purposes. The reported plant species in the present study are either cultivated or collected from the forests as these communities spent most of their time in the forests, therefore providing cost-effective treatment to the cattle compared to the modern drugs. Except for the herbal preparation A. calamus and U. villosa in which fruit of C. annum and seeds of Trigonella sp. are mixed, plant parts of all the species were used solitarily for the treatments.
Use-value (UV) and Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)
Following use-value (UV), the most important plant species reported were Rumex nepalensis (UV = 0.72), followed by Skimmia laureola (UV = 0.43), Berberis lyceum, and Bistorta amplexicaulis (UV = 0.34 each), and Ranunculus bulbosus (UV = 0.31). Aconitum violaceum and Acorus calamus, with minimum use-value (UV = 0.03 each), were the least used species in the study area. Relative frequency of citation shows the maximum used therapeutic plants used by the local populace to treat various ailments regarding the number of informants mentioning them as useful. The dominant species in the study area were Rumex nepalensis (RFC = 0.48), Bistorta amplexicaulis (RFC = 0.34), Urtica dioica (RFC = 0.21), and Skimmia laureola (RFC = 0.19), as the maximum number of informants cited these. In the present study, RFC ranges from 0.48 − 0.03 (Table 2).
Informant Consensus Factor
All the ailments reported from the study area, which were cured using traditional remedies, were broadly classified into 09 different ailment categories. The highest consent of the informants was obtained for the treatment of Physical pains (ICF = 1), followed by Miscellaneous disorders (ICF = 0.94), Muscular-skeletal disorders (ICF = 0.93), Respiratory (ICF = 0.92), and Dermatological and gynecological/ andrological disorders (ICF = 0.9 each). The documented ICF value in the present study is in line with the previous report of Sharma et al. [15] who reported the highest ICF for urological disorders (0.95) and lowest for nutritional diseases (0.80). In another study, ICF value in the range of 0.75–0.95 was reported by Meen et al. [38] with higher values for respiratory, gastrointestinal, and reproductive. The ICF values were mostly on the higher side in the present study, which suggests that the informants share the information among themselves. The maximum number of plant species used for treating the Gynecological/Andrological disorders were 10 with 88 use reports, followed by Fever (8 species), Gastrointestinal disorders and Snakebite (5 species each), Dermatological disorders (4 species), Miscellaneous and Respiratory disorders (3 species each). (Table 3)
Table 3
Informant Consensus Factor for different livestock diseases
Ailment category
|
No. of Species used (nt)
|
Use Citations (nur)
|
ICF = nur-nt/ nt-1
|
Gynaecological/ Andrological
|
10
|
88
|
0.90
|
Fever
|
8
|
61
|
0.88
|
Gastrointestinal
|
5
|
29
|
0.86
|
Snake bite
|
5
|
22
|
0.81
|
Dermatological
|
4
|
31
|
0.90
|
Miscellaneous disorders
|
3
|
35
|
0.94
|
Respiratory
|
3
|
26
|
0.92
|
Muscular-skeletal disorders
|
2
|
16
|
0.93
|
Physical pains
|
1
|
4
|
1.00
|
Fidelity level (FL%)
The importance of plant species in the particular ailment category was accessed through fidelity level (FL %), ranging from 24–100%. To cure the dermatological ailments, the species with the highest fidelity level were Clematis grata and Cynodon dactylon (FL = 100% each), Berberis lycium (FL = 60%), and Girardinia diversifolia (FL = 42.86%).
Similarly, fever was mainly treated by Allium sativum, Mentha longifolia, and Vitex negundo (FL = 100% each); Gastrointestinal disorders by Acorus calamus, Prunus armeniaca, and Viburnum grandiflorum (FL = 100% each), Cannabis sativa (55.56%), and so on. Gynecological/Andrological disorders by Bistorta amplexicaulis, Brassica rapa, Ficus carica, Geranium wallichianum, Grewia optiva, Phytolacca acinosa, Punica granatum, Ulmus villosa, and Urtica dioica (FL = 100% each), Some of the other important species with high fidelity level are Berberis lycium (FL = 40%), Skimmia laureola (Fl = 32%) to cure Muscular-skeletal disorders; Calotropis procera, Zea mays (FL = 100% each), Rumex nepalensis (FL = 66.67%) for Miscellaneous disorders; Cannabis sativa (FL = 44.44%) for Physical pains; Capsicum annuum (FL = 42.86%), Rumex nepalensis (FL = 33.33%), for Respiratory disorders and Achillea millefolium, Aconitum violaceum, Allium cepa, Primula denticulata (FL = 100% each), Arisaema jacquemontii (FL = 42.86%) for snake bite. In the search for novel bioactive compounds, plants with high FL values should be further studied in vitro, and younger generations could be trained in ethnoveterinary activities. (Table 4)
Table 4 Fidelity level of plants used in the treatment of various veterinary diseases
Ailment category
|
Plant
|
NP
|
N
|
FL%= NP/N×100
|
Dermatological
|
Clematis grata Wall./ Ranunculaceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
|
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers./ Poaceae
|
8
|
8
|
100.00
|
|
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis/ Urticaceae
|
6
|
14
|
42.86
|
|
Berberis lycium Royle/ Berberidaceae
|
12
|
20
|
60.00
|
Fever
|
Allium sativum L./ Amaryllidaceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
|
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume/ Araceae
|
8
|
14
|
57.14
|
|
Capsicum annuum L./ Solanaceae
|
8
|
14
|
57.14
|
|
Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet/ Geraniaceae
|
4
|
6
|
66.67
|
|
Mentha longifolia (L.) L./ Lamiaceae
|
7
|
7
|
100.00
|
|
Ranunculus bulbosus L./ Ranunculaceae
|
10
|
18
|
55.56
|
|
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne./ Rutaceae
|
11
|
25
|
44.00
|
|
Vitex negundo L./ Lamiaceae
|
8
|
8
|
100.00
|
Gastrointestinal
|
Acorus calamus L./ Acoraceae
|
2
|
2
|
100.00
|
|
Cannabis sativa L./ Cannabaceae
|
5
|
9
|
55.56
|
|
Prunus armeniaca L./ Rosaceae
|
8
|
8
|
100.00
|
|
Ranunculus bulbosus L./ Ranunculaceae
|
8
|
18
|
44.44
|
|
Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC./ Viburnaceae
|
6
|
6
|
100.00
|
Gynaecological/ Andrological
|
Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene/ Polygonaceae
|
20
|
20
|
100.00
|
|
Brassica rapa L./ Brassicaceae
|
6
|
6
|
100.00
|
|
Ficus carica L./ Moraceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
|
Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet/ Geraniaceae
|
6
|
6
|
100.00
|
|
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis/ Urticaceae
|
8
|
14
|
57.14
|
|
Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm. ex Burret/ Malvaceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
|
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb./ Phytolaccaceae
|
8
|
8
|
100.00
|
|
Punica granatum L./ Lythraceae
|
10
|
10
|
100.00
|
|
Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble/ Ulmaceae
|
8
|
8
|
100.00
|
|
Urtica dioica L./ Urticaceae
|
12
|
12
|
100.00
|
Muscular-skeletal disorders
|
Berberis lycium Royle/ Berberidaceae
|
8
|
20
|
40.00
|
|
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne./ Rutaceae
|
8
|
25
|
32.00
|
Miscellaneous
|
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton/ Apocynaceae
|
4
|
4
|
100.00
|
|
Rumex nepalensis Spreng./ Polygonaceae
|
28
|
42
|
66.67
|
|
Zea mays L./ Poaceae
|
3
|
3
|
100.00
|
Physical pains
|
Cannabis sativa L./ Cannabaceae
|
4
|
9
|
44.44
|
Respiratory
|
Capsicum annuum L./ Solanaceae
|
6
|
14
|
42.86
|
|
Rumex nepalensis Spreng./ Polygonaceae
|
14
|
42
|
33.33
|
|
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne./ Rutaceae
|
6
|
25
|
24.00
|
Snake bite
|
Achillea millefolium L./ Asteraceae
|
4
|
4
|
100.00
|
|
Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf/ Ranunculaceae
|
2
|
2
|
100.00
|
|
Allium cepa L./ Amaryllidaceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
|
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume/ Araceae
|
6
|
14
|
42.86
|
|
Primula denticulata Sm./ Primulaceae
|
5
|
5
|
100.00
|
Comparative assessment of traditional uses with the previous studies
To find out the novelty in the conventional usage of plant parts for various types of ethnoveterinary diseases use of the documented medicinal plant species were therefore comparatively analyzed with the literature reports in different regions of the J&K and available data from other states of India. The present study reported using root powder of Achillea millefolium to be given to cattle on snakebite (Table 2). Besides, a previous study from district Rajouri (J&K) has reported the use of shoots and leaves for urinary disorders in cattle [39]. In Himachal Pradesh, the dried powder of the whole plant of A. millefolium is given orally with hot water to treat wound heal, skin allergy, and sunburn [40]. The root powder of Aconitum violaceum is given to Buffalos, Ox, and Horse in case of snakebite (Table 2). From India, ethnoveterinary use reports for this plant species lack in the literature.
As per the study area respondents, the root powder of Acorus calamus is given orally to treat stomach pain in horses. Previous literature survey revealed many other important ethnoveterinary uses for different parts of this plant. The tribal and rural communities in Uttar Pradesh is previously reported to use the leaf pastes and rhizome powder of A. calamus to treat wounds in animals [41]. An amalgamation of rhizome powder of A. calamus and Artemisia scoparia prepared in Brassica campestris (mustard) or Sesamum indicum (sesame) is used by the indigenous oil people in Himachal Pradesh for massage therapy in case of fever, joint pain, and arthritics in livestock's [36]. A study carried out previously in the Shivalik Hilly zones of Himachal Pradesh reported the ethnoveterinary use of A. calamus rhizome powder and included to treat epilepsy, urinary problems, hydrocele, and expelling out the worms [42]. Similarly, the leaves, roots, and the whole plant of A. calamus is used to treat various gastrointestinal issues in sheep, cows, buffalos, and goats in the West's Darjeeling subdivision Bengal and district Doda of Jammu and Kashmir [43, 44].
The bulb powder of Allium cepa is given orally to animals to treat snakebite in the study area (Table 2). The people in the Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir used the softballs prepared by crushed bulbs of A. cepa and salt as a remedy for cattle against cold, anorexia, and cows stimulate the oestrus cycle. These balls are also given to horses to cure the frothy bloat caused due to the grazing of (Trifolium repens) [45]. The oral intake of 100g paste of Allium cepa is also reported to alleviate cattle swelling [39]. The mixture of powdered bulbs of Allium cepa with black salt is given along with water to cure the mouth's infection and hoops in cattle in Hassan District of Karnataka [46]. The mixture of A. cepa bulb with black salt and water is given to Cows, Buffalos, Oxen, Goats, and Sheep by the traditional herbal healers in Uttarakhand poisoning [47]. In Orissa, the bulb paste of A. cepa is reported to cure fever [48], whereas the tribal society in Rajasthan gives the whole plant's oral decoction to sheep and goats as a tonic and febrifuge [38].
The bulbs of Allium sativum are powdered and given with milk and ghee to cure pyrexia (Table 2). A previous study reported garlic used to treat diarrhea in sheep, cows, goats, buffalo [44]. In the Kalakote range of Jammu and Kashmir, bulb paste of A. satium and curd is given to female buffalos and is considered an aphrodisiac [39]. A paste of bulb is administered once daily for five days to treat cough by the tribal in Andhra Pradesh [49]. In Haryana, the oral intake of garlic and elaichi mixed with jaggery is reported to cure cold and fever [50]. A plethora of ethnoveterinary properties such as cough & cold, bronchitis, brain disease, earache, indigestion, food poisoning, diarrhea, injuries, snake bite is reported from Central India using the juice of bulbs of A. satium and using the bulbs in multiple combinations with mustard oil or mustard oil and ash of cow dung cake or bulb paste and beeswax or bulb paste, milk, and cooking oil [6]. A paste prepared by mixing the bulbs of A. sativum with the bark of Oroxylum indicum and Terminalia bellirica in rice-soaked water is used to treat black quarter disease in cattle in Karnataka [33]. In the Marwar region of Rajasthan, the stem of Allium sativum is mixed with flowers of Punica granatum and milk and used against gastrointestinal infection [38]. The animal owners and housewives in Uttarakhand use A. sativum for various ethnoveterinary uses such as food poisoning, tympany, sterility, skin infection, arthritis, internal parasites, foot mouth disease, stomachache [51]. Anthelmintic property is reported for these plants' bulbs from West Bengal [52].
The underground part of Arisaema jacquemontii is powdered and given orally to cattle to cure pyrexia and snakebite in the study area. No ethnoveterinary uses have been found in the literature for this plant species. The powder of stem bark and paste prepared from the outer bark of root Berberis lycium is used externally to treat wounds, whereas the oral decoction of the root is given to treat fractures in cattle (Table 2). In contrast, the root decoction of B. lycium is previously reported to treat jaundice in Cow, Goats, and Buffalo from the Doda district of J&K [44]. The bark of B. lycium is also used to treat mouth and foot disease of cattle in Western Himalaya [53]. The present study reported the use of rhizome of Bistorta amplexicaulis as a galactagogue. The residue left after extracting the seed oil from Brassica rapa is locally known as 'Khal' in the study area and is used as a galactagogue (Table 2). The seed oil B. Rapa, in combination with the paste of bulb of Allium cepa is previously reported to be used in treating wounds in Madhya Pradesh [54].
The leaf of Calotropis procera is used to treat hemorrhagic septicemia and swellings in the study area (Table 2). Literature survey revealed various other ethnoveterinary properties for this plant species. The people in the tribal regions of Andhra Pradesh apply the milky leaf latex of Calotropis procera on the inflamed areas to relieve inflammation and on snake bite to neutralize poison [49]. The people in Central India used the roots, leaves, and flowers of this plant species either in powder form or in combination with milk or mustard oil to treat a bone fracture, tumor, healing of wounds, swelling, conjunctivitis, earache, skin diseases, urine retention, easy delivery, snake bite, indigestion, diarrhea and dysentery, stomachache, falling of tail [6]. The leaves and leaf latex are reported to remove intestinal worms in sheep, act as a galactagogue, and be employed in the detachment of the placenta after delivery, respectively [50]. The indigenous people in Himachal Pradesh apply the milky leaf latex on the bitten part of the body to neutralize the poison snake and dog [36].
The present study documented the whole plant powder of Cannabis sativa to be given orally to treat body pains in cattle's whereas the powdered leaves balls locally known as 'Peda' are given to cattle to treat intestinal worms (Table 2). The Karbi tribe in Assam and the Vaidya's, hakims, sadhus, and tribal people in the Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh have been previously reported to use the leaf and leaf mixture of C. sativa with whey and water to treat diarrhea in animals, respectively [32, 55]. The ethnoveterinary properties such as reddishness, cough, cataract, urinogenital disorders using the leaves and seeds of C. sativa are also reported from the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh [42]. The pastoralists in Jammu and Kashmir use the whole plant powder for improving the poor reproductive performance in cattle and buffalos [57], while in the Kalakote range of J&K, the leaf powder is given orally for anorexia in cattle [39]. In Orissa, balls made from the C. sativa and seeds of Cicer arietinum is given orally once a day against chronic dysentery in cattle [48]. In Sikkim Himalaya, the stem pieces of C. sativa are fed to the livestock to treat inflammation and act as a tonic to cattle [56]. In Uttarakhand, the traditional herbal healers apply the boiled leaves of Cannabis sativa with the ash of Pinus roxburghi and black salt externally to treat sprain in animals such as cow, buffalo, sheep, goats, dog [47].
The fruits of Capsicum annuum are given orally to treat pyrexia in cattle, and the mature fruits powder is given with buttermilk (lassi) to cattle to cure cough in the study area. The fruit paste is reported earlier to be useful against mouth disease in animals [49]. The mixture of C. annum fruit and salt was reported by the pastoralists of J&K to be useful against endoparasites [57]. In Jhansi District of Uttar Pradesh, the paste of seeds of Allium sativum, Piper nigrum, Cuminum cyminum, and alum is given to alleviate dullness in animals [32]. In Uttarakhand, the healers are reported to use the powdered mixture of the pod of C. annum and bark of Zanthoxylum armatum to treat fasciolosis in Buffalo, Cow, and Oxen [47]. Other reported ethnoveterinary properties of fruits and stem of this plant species include hoof infection, skin disease, dog bite, wounds blisters, eczema, hemorrhagic septicemia, foot and mouth disease, and burns [51].
The present study documented the anthelmintic property of leaf juice of Clematis grata in cattle. Literature reports concerning its ethnoveterinary uses have not been reported hitherto in India (Table 2). A paste prepared from the whole herb or roots of Cynodon dactylon is reported to be applied to cattle wounds in the study area. Previous literature reports documented besides various other ethnoveterinary uses of this plant from India. In J&K, the whole plant is given as feed, and also the plant paste made with water is applied to the pelvic region to treat the problem of oliguria in Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats [44]. In Andhra Pradesh, the whole plant C. dactylon is known as 'Garika' and is mixed with pepper along with toddy and given orally twice a day for one week to treat rheumatism in cattle, buffalo, goat, and sheep [58], whereas in Assam the whole plant of C. dactylon is used to treat vomiting in goat, pig, and cow [55]. The ethnoveterinary uses, i.e., to increase lactation and treat conjunctivitis of the leaf juice and aerial plant part of this species, are also reported previously from Central India [6]. Various ethnoveterinary uses for this plant have been reported from Uttarakhand and include gastric troubles, bone fracture, sprains, mastitis, and clotting of internal blood injury [59].
Leaf juice of Ficus carica is used to expel worms from wounds in cattle. The tribals in Todgarh-Raoli Wildlife Sanctuary of Rajasthan uses the latex of Ficus carica for treating eczema and carbuncles in animals [30]. The ethnic tribal communities in Darjeeling District of West Bengal use the leaves and fruits of F. carica to treat diabetes and gastric problem in domestic animals [43].
The roots of the Geranium wallichianum are directly given to animals to cure pyrexia and galactagogue. Previous studies in J&K reported the use of crushed fresh roots against weakness, inflammation of hooves, warts, and abscissions in cows [18, 45], while bone fracture and broken horns are reported to be treated by the traditional healers using this plant in Uttarakhand [59, 47]. The dried root powder of Girardinia diversifolia is given along with milk to cattle to cure retention of the placenta, while the leaf paste is applied externally to treat wounds. The root paste of G. diversifolia has been previously reported to be used in pimples and boils in domestic animals in Uttarakhand [60]. The fresh leaves of Grewia optiva is given orally to treat retention of placenta in cows and buffaloes. Previous reported ethnoveterinary uses from Uttarakhand for this plant include throat infection, indigestion, dysentery, constipation, diarrhea, bone fracture, sprains, tonsils, pregnancy, lactation [59].
The leaf decoction Mentha longifolia made in tea is given to cattle to cure pyrexia. No such use reports have been found in the literature. The roots of Phytolacca acinosa are given to animals to cure the inability to inseminate in the study area. A previous study from District Doda, J&K reported the whole plant's powdered mixture with whey and milk given to Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goat to treat hematuria [44]. The indigenous people in Himachal Pradesh use the leaves and twigs to treat cough, cold, constipation in livestock [40], while the tribals in Uttarakhand give seeds orally to the domestic animals to treat pneumonia and leaves to treat fever [60, 61]. Fever and joint pain in Yak is reported to be treated using the roots of P. acinosa by the Monpa tribe in Arunachal Pradesh [62]. The pounded flowers of Primula denticulata are given orally to cattle to treat snakebite, and the same user has been reported earlier by Khan and Kumar [63] from Poonch district.
The respondents give the dried fruit rind powder of Punica granatum to cattle to treat prolapse (Table 2). The comparative literature review revealed various other ethnoveterinary uses for other parts of this plant from J&K and other Indian states. In Jammu and Kashmir, the local inhabitants and tribals give the fruit paste and seeds of P. granatum orally to animals to treat urinary problems, hemorrhagic enteritis, and liver problems, respectively [39, 44]. A paste prepared by mixing chopped leaf of P. granatum, root bark powder of Ficus religiosa, and Sesamum indicum oil has been reported to be used by the rural women Banaskantha district of Gujrat to treat skin infections in animals [64]. The indigenous people in Garhwal Himalayan Region gives the grounded leaves of P. granatum to the animal twice a day for three days to treat diarrhea [65].
The root powder and root decoction of Ranunculus bulbosus given orally to cattle to treat pneumonia and to expel intestinal worms, respectively, in the study area are reported for the first time from India (Table 2). The present study reported using roots powder Rumex nepalensis combined with buttermilk to treat general weakness and cough in cattle (Table 2). Besides, the Gujjar tribe in Kashmir Himalaya prepared semi-solid balls from the roots of R. nepalensis by boiling the root powder in milk along with salt and give it to the newly born calf to protect them from juvenile infections [18]. In Cows, buffalos, sheep, and goats, the mixture of roots of R. nepalensis and Piper nigrum has been reported to treat fever, tympany, and bloat [44]. This plant species has also been reported to treat diarrhea and dysentery in Uttarakhand animals [59].
According to the informants, the boiled leaves Skimmia laureola are given to cattle to cure pyrexia, while the leaf powder is given with milk to cattle to treat cold. Besides, root paste is applied externally to treat fractures in animals also (Table 2). In J&K, the oral administration of leaves twice a day for seven days has been reported previously to treat anemia in Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats [44]. The use of leaves of Ulmus villosa to treat prolapse in cattle in the present study is the first reported from India (Table 2). Urtica dioica is commonly known as ''stinging nettle''. The roots of this plant are given to cattle as a galactagogue (Table 2). Pande et al. [59] reported various ethnoveterinary uses of this plant from Uttarakhand and include abdominal pain wounds, bone fracture sprains, hematuria, rheumatism, neck sore, lactation, and regulate fertility. The present study reported the fresh leaves of Viburnum grandiflorum to be given orally to treat constipation (Table 2) and is reported for the first time from India.
The leaves of Vitex negundo are given orally to cattle to cure pyrexia in the study area. Comparative literature review from J&K and other states of India revealed various other uses for the same plant part. The leaves are used to treat stomach ache, reddening eyes, and diarrhea in milk-yielding animals and camels, respectively, in J&K [15, 66]. The leaves and twigs of this plant are used as an appetizer and against mastitis in livestock in H.P [67], while in Uttarakhand and Karnataka, the same plant part as an antidote against snake bites in animals [68]. The chiru tribe in Manipur uses the leaves to treat dermatitis in domestic animals [35], while the same plant part shows antibacterial and anthelmintic properties in cattle, as reported from Tamil Nadu [69].
In the present study, the Zea mays flour is reported to be given with water to treat foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle (Table 2), whereas a previous literature survey from India revealed other ethnoveterinary also uses for this plant species. The seeds and flour of Zea mays are useful against constipation in livestock in the Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh [67]. Besides, Sharma et al. [12] reported the seeds as a galactagogue in milk-yielding animals from District Kathua of J&K. In Karnataka, the flowers of this species are used to treat urinary inflammation in livestock [46]. In contrast, Andhra Pradesh's people use the corns of this species to treat reproductive disorders [49].
The comparative comparison of the recorded plant components used in the related literature analysis confirms some of our results. Further research on these plant species is also needed to investigate their potential from a drug production perspective and extend their current therapeutic potential.
Novelty of the study
The current work is the first of its nature in the study area and Seven species (Aconitum violaceum, Arisaema jacquemontii, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Clematis grata, Ranunculus bulbosus, Ulmus villosa and Viburnum grandiflorum.) were documented for the first time from India for their ethnoveterinary practices.
Conservation perspective
Of all the 31 reported species, only ten species namely A. cepa, A. sativum, B. rapa, C. annuum, G. optiva, M. longifolia, P. armeniaca, P. granatum, V. negundo, Z. mays have been brough under cultivation. Therefore, there is an ardent need of the cultivation and conservation of the remaining plant species for their sustainable use.