3.1 Ethnobotanical knowledge of breeders on mangrove use for livestock
3.1.1 Characteristics of farm production systems
Descriptive results show that ruminant livestock farming in Benin's coastal belt was practised by both men and women. The average age of the cattle farmers was 43.2±17.29 years while the average age of the small ruminant farmers was 51.04±16.02 years. The origins were diversified, especially for cattle breeders with a seniority of 31.53±18.79 years. The latter almost all belonged to the Fulani socio-cultural group, and came from the country of Niger and Northern Benin (Natitingou, Savè, Malanville and Karimama) and were using mangrove swamps for 19.93±16.62 years. Livestock farming was their one and only activity.
The small ruminant farmers were almost all Beninese and raised sheep and/or goats with a use period of 14.71±11.58 years. This group practiced animal husbandry as a second activity, while the main activity related to the use of the mangrove was fishing and/or traditional medicine for the men, and for the women salt production. They were all indigenous and belonged mainly to the Xwla, Peda, Fon ethnic groups and to a lesser extent to other groups (Yoruba, Goun, Evé and Nago), with a duration of mangrove use of 21.65±13.53 years.
Three types of farming systems related to livestock have been identified in the area. These are family farming (81.11%), open-air farming (13.33%) and coconut plantation farming (5.56%). For family farming, the animals encountered were only sheep and 5.59±3.12 goat heads that were reared in a controlled area, either rambling, in sheepfolds or folds. The size of the livestock encountered is 42.20±52.29 head of cattle in the open-air farms and 101.40±65.65 head of cattle in the coconut plantations. For the group of cattle, the breeds most commonly found in the zone were the lagoon, followed by the Azawouak, Gougali, and to a lesser extent the Bobodji, Yakana, Borgou, and Djabadjaba breeds. In contrast, for the small ruminant group, the breeds encountered were mainly Djallonké and some Sahelian breeds.
3.1.2 Plants used by herders
Five mangrove species were used in ruminants breeding. There are trees like Rhizophora racemosa, Avicennia africana, herbaceous perennial legumes such as Zanthoxyllum zanthoxyloides and Blutaparon vermiculare and, a grass Paspalum vaginatum. For each species, parts used, the animal type fed and the using areas were documented (table 1).
Table 1. Mangrove species used in ruminants breeding
Species used
|
Local names
|
Parts used
|
Animal type
|
Using areas
|
Rhizophora racemosa
|
Xwéto (Xwla, Fon) or
Guiogba (Goun)
|
leaves, bark, flowers, young stalk, seeds, wood
|
Sheep and Goats
|
Abomey-Calavi
Ouidah
Grand Popo
|
Avicennia africana
|
Akpontin (Xwla)
|
leaves, bark, young stalk, seeds, wood
|
Sheep and Goats
|
Ouidah
Grand Popo
|
Paspalum vaginatum
|
Gbakon (Xwla) or Woko (Goun) or Tchitchiri
(Fulani)
|
leaves
|
Cattle, Sheep and Goats
|
All 04 communes
|
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides
|
Hêtin (Xwla, Fon)
|
leaves
|
Sheep and Goats
|
Abomey-Calavi
Ouidah
Grand Popo
|
Blutaparon vermiculare
|
Djèdjè (Xwla)
|
leaves
|
Sheep and Goats
|
Ouidah
|
Table 1 revealed that, according to the breeder, the mangrove species R. racemosa and A. africana were used only for small ruminants. Cattle mainly grazed the grasslands of mangrove ecosystems, where Paspalum vaginatum is prevalent. Almost all parts of the two mangroves species (R. racemosa and A. africana) were used whereas only leaves from the other plant species were used.
3.1.3 Pastoral importance of the mangrove species for breeders
Mangrove species were mentioned in four (04) use categories namely feeding, health, sheepfold or fold building, and reproduction management. However, for each species mentioned above, the number of use categories varied as presented in table 2.
Table 2. Use categories with citation rate and parts used per species
Species used
|
Use categories
|
Citation rate (%)
|
Parts used
|
Rhizophora racemosa
|
Feeding
|
55.55
|
leaves, bark, flowers, young stalk, seed
|
Sheepfold or fold building
|
5.55
|
wood
|
Health
|
2.22
|
leaves
|
reproduction management
|
1.11
|
leaves, bark
|
Avicennia africana
|
Feeding
|
27.77
|
leaves, bark, young stalk, seed, wood
|
Sheepfold or fold building
|
1.11
|
wood
|
Paspalum vaginatum
|
Feeding
|
64.44
|
leaves
|
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides
|
Feeding
|
21.11
|
leaves
|
Health
|
21.11
|
leaves
|
Blutaparon vermiculare
|
Feeding
|
8.88
|
leaves
|
All species cited were used for animal feeding; and R. racemosa (55.6%), P. vaginatum (64.44%) and A. africana (27.78%) were mainly cited for this use category.
Z. Zanthoxyloides (21.11%) leaves were used for animal health especially against diarrhoea and skin diseases. R. racemosa, mentioned in all the use categories, was used for sheepfold building (5.56%), and its leaves and bark in reproduction management (1.11%), indeed, this specie is given to sheep for obtaining more male descendants than female ones.
In particular, the different parts of native mangroves species like R. racemosa and A. Africana, were diversely used in animal feeding (Figure 2). Leaves (55.55% and 27.77%) and bark (35.55% and 16.66%), respectively for R. racemosa and A. Africana, were most parts ingested by small ruminants. Also, flowers and young stalks from R. racemosa and wood of A. africana were well used.
3.1.4 Mangrove plant’s utilization according to ethnic groups
The correspondence analysis performed (Figure 3) showed that the two first axes explained 93.34% (axis 1=67.92% and axis 2=25.42%) of the total variation. Only these axes were used to describe the relationship between ethnic groups and mangroves species use in ruminants breeding.
Considering axis 1, R. racemosa, B. vermiculare and A. africana constituted the resources used by autochthon fisheries areas ethnical groups Xwla and Peda. In contrast, P. vaginatum was the only species preferably used by foreigner from Fon and Fulani ethnical group. On axis 2, Z. Zanthoxyloides was correlated with others ethnic groups namely Goun, Nagot, Evé and Yoruba.
3.2 Ruminants production systems
3.2.1 Perceptions of the causes of mangrove degradation
Irrespective of age, almost all the herders interviewed (100%) indicated that they perceived some changes in mangrove swamps. Indeed, 42.2% of herders surveyed perceived degradation of mangrove ecosystems and 57.8% perceived mangrove restoration.
Figure 4 presents data on the causes of degradation of mangrove ecosystems according to the herders identified. It is clear that anarchic exploitation and the use of mangrove species for firewood (57.82%) and salt production (26.30%) are the main source of perceived degradation. Many (47.39%) breeders acknowledged their dependence on mangrove swamps and surrounding grasslands for livestock breeding and that their full degradation could constitute a hindrance for their activity.
The farmers surveyed mentioned some restoration measures to ensure the conservation of degraded mangrove ecosystems in southern Benin. Informants agreed to plant mangroves (Rhizophora racemosa and Avicennia germinans), but suggested finding alternatives for firewood. According to the same informants, the restoration and effective conservation of mangrove ecosystems in southern Benin requires a participatory approach between the state and the resident population.
3.2.2 Socio-economic characteristics of farms around degraded or restoring mangroves
The socio-economic characteristics of mangrove farms that have been degraded or are being restored in the selected farming systems are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The level of formal education of the herder, his ethnic group and religion, his form and scale of use of mangrove resources, and his main livestock, vary significantly (p < 0.001) from one area to another where mangroves are being restored or degraded. In areas characterized by a strong degradation of mangroves (mainly Sèmè-Podji and Abomey-Calavi), nearly half of the herders were not enrolled in school and were from the Peulh (23.7%), Fon (21.1%) or other ethnic groups (Yoruba, Mina, Goun, Nago, Evé) (15.8%). They mainly practiced Islam or Christianity. Cattle were raised significantly with an average of 56.70±63.29 heads associated or not with a small herd (2.71±2.05 heads). The number of mangrove trees and related species mainly coveted for animal feed was on average 1.39±0.95, but were much more used as substitute feed by 52.6% of them. The remaining pastoralists used these resources as their main feed.
Table 3. Qualitative characteristics of farms around mangroves areas
|
Mangrove trend
|
|
|
Variables
|
Degradated (%)
n=38
|
Restoring (%)
n=52
|
χ2
|
P (≤)
|
Areas
Ouidah
Abomey-Calavi
Sèmè-Podji
Grand-Popo
|
28.9
15.8
31.8
23.7
|
57.7
0.0
0.0
42.3
|
30.825
|
0.000
|
Gender
Male
Female
|
68.4
31.6
|
61.5
38.5
|
0.454
|
0.500
|
Formal education
Elementary
Secondary
None
|
23.7
28.9
47.4
|
55.8
11.5
32.7
|
10.092
|
0.006
|
Another occupation
Fishing
Salt preparation
Traditional medecine
None
|
28.9
18.4
0.0
52.6
|
44.2
23.1
3.8
28.8
|
6.239
|
0.101
|
Ethnic group
Xwla
Peda
Fulani
Fon
Others
|
34.2
5.3
23.7
21.1
15.8
|
61.5
19.2
7.7
7.7
3.8
|
16.842
|
0.002
|
Religion
Traditional
Christian
Muslim
|
42.1
31.6
26.3
|
71.2
19.2
9.6
|
8.190
|
0.017
|
Farming types
Family
In fresh air
Under coconuts
|
73.7
18.4
7.9
|
86.5
9.6
3.8
|
2.372
|
0.305
|
Mangrove resources as alternative feedstuffs
No
Yes
|
47.4
52.6
|
71.2
28.8
|
5.227
|
0.022
|
Breeders’ groups
Cattle
Small ruminants
|
26.3
73.7
|
9.6
90.4
|
4.409
|
0.036
|
Age
|
42.2
|
57.8
|
8.246a
|
0,01
|
≤ 30 years
|
10.0
|
2.2
|
|
|
31 – 59 years
|
22.2
|
35.6
|
|
|
≥ 60 years
|
10.0
|
20.0
|
|
|
Conversely, sheep farming was more developed (9.36±10.35 head) associated with a significant development of goat farming (90.4% of the herders) with an average of 6.20±3.70 head in areas very characterized by mangrove restoration (mainly Grand Popo and Ouidah). Mangroves and related species used to feed these animals were significantly higher (P<0.05) with an average of 2.02±1.17 species and were used by 71.2% of the herders as their main food. Vodoun" was the religion practiced by the majority of herders (71.2%) who belonged to an Xwla (61.5%) or Peda (19.2%) community. Here, the majority of herders (67.3%) attended school. Herders in degraded mangroves were younger (46.42±16.72 years) than those in mangroves under restoration (52.15±15.89 years). In fact, the age group that perceives the most changes is between 31 and 59 years old, both in degraded mangroves and in areas under restoration. Age varies significantly according to the proximity of degraded or restored mangroves (p < 0.01).
Table 4. Quantitative characteristics of farms around mangroves areas
Quantitative variables
|
Degradation
(n= 38)
|
Restoration
(n= 52)
|
P-value
|
Oldness (years)
|
15.58±13.32
|
18.92±15.08
|
0.251
|
Cattle size (heads)
|
56.70±63.29
|
72.40±63.50
|
0.759
|
Sheep size (heads)
|
2.71±2.05
|
9.36±10.35
|
0.012
|
Goat size (heads)
|
4.60±2.25
|
6.20±3.70
|
0.118
|
Use duration of mangrove areas (years)
|
19.24±13.52
|
22.92±14.27
|
0.213
|
Number of mangrove species used
|
1.39±0.95
|
2.02±1.17
|
0.02
|
The results of the logistic regression analysis are presented in Table 5. Socio-economics characteristics of the farmers which was likely to influence their willingness to participate in the mangrove conservation strategy were used in the analysis. The age of the herders, his education level, ethnic group, farm localization in the coastal area, religion and herders types (cattle or small ruminants’ keepers) were selected as predictors. Variables much correlate with the others like education level, religion and herder types were removed from predictors list. Among the remaining variable, the backward logistic regression permit to retain the age of the herders and his ethnic group as suitable to predict farmers willingness to contribute in enhancing mangrove restoration and conservation. Indeed, the full model was statistically significant, indicating that the predictors (age and ethnic group) as a whole, reliably distinguish farmers' with practices contributing to mangrove restoration and the others (df = 6, χ2 = 24,470, p < 0,001). The Nagelkerke R2 value of 0.320 indicates a moderately strong relationship between prediction and aggregation. The non-significance of Hosmer and Lemeshow's test confirmed the validity of the regression model. The success of the prediction as a whole was 68.42% for the group of herders who reported degradation and 76.92% for those who contribute to restoration strategy for better conservation of mangrove resources. The eß values indicate that when the herders is an adult (31-59 years old) the odds ratio is 0.130 times as large. This odds ratio is 9.328 and 19.85 times greater that when the herders is of Peda or Fulani ethnic groups, respectively. These results imply that the probability that a herder contribute in enhancing actions for mangroves conservation increases in adult herders farms and around farms kept by Fulani and Peda people.
Table 5: Prediction of the contribution to mangrove restoration in southern Benin by logistic regression analysis (n = 90)
Predictor
|
β
|
SE of β
|
Wald’s χ2
|
df
|
P value
|
eβ (odds ratio)
|
Constant
|
-0,495
|
0,382
|
1,681
|
1
|
0,195
|
0,609
|
Age (≤30 years)
|
|
|
5,75
|
2
|
0,056
|
|
Age (31-59 years)
|
-2,037
|
0,946
|
4,63
|
1
|
0,031
|
0,13
|
Age (≥60 years)
|
0,083
|
0,561
|
0,022
|
1
|
0,882
|
1,087
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ethnic groups (Xwla)
|
|
|
13,733
|
4
|
0,008
|
|
Peda
|
2,233
|
0,897
|
6,194
|
1
|
0,013
|
9,328
|
Fulani
|
2,988
|
1,163
|
6,599
|
1
|
0,010
|
19,851
|
Fon
|
0,602
|
1,032
|
0,340
|
1
|
0,560
|
1,825
|
Others
|
0,764
|
1,043
|
0,536
|
1
|
0,464
|
2,147
|
Test
|
Overall model evaluation
(Model χ2)
|
|
|
24,47
|
6
|
0,001
|
|
Goodness of fit test
(Hosmer and
Lemeshow)
|
|
|
3,669
|
6
|
0,721
|
|
-2 Log likelihood= 98.110a
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Cox & Snell R Square=0,238
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Nagelkerke R Square= 0,320
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3.3 Breeders’ point of view about sustainable use of mangrove swamps
People surveyed revealed some threats to mangrove sustainability. Uncontrolled exploitation including burning of stumps after cutting (24.6%), salt preparation and firewood needs (68.8%), human settlement (4.4%) and fishery (2.2%) were mentioned. Paradoxically, no threats were mentioned regarding ruminant grazing around or into mangrove swamps. Nonetheless, breeders suggested some issues for its sustainable use. Figure 5 presented the proposed strategies for mangroves restoration and conservation.
This figure showed that most of small ruminants’ owners suggested mangroves trees planting (42.7%) and cutting control (32%), while cattle owners emphasized a better management of conflicts farmer-breeder (33.3%), for this resource conservation. Management review including participative management was also proposed by both cattle’s breeders and breeders of small ruminants. Figure 6 showed that close to degraded mangroves, the strategies most used by farmers are planting mangroves (52.61%), followed by rational exploitation by controlling cutting (18.48%). On the other hand, close to restored mangroves, the most used conservation strategies are mostly rational exploitation through the control of cutting and management (38.41%) followed by mangrove planting (28.89%) and participatory management and resource sharing (15.40%). These strategies varied significantly (p≤ 0.001) between the two groups.
Regarding its conservation strategies according to ethnic groups, Figure 7 shows that the local ethnic groups Xwla (20%) and Peda (4.4%) are the most involved in the conservation or restoration of mangrove ecosystems through planting and rational exploitation through logging control. However the Peda are the only ethnic group that prohibits the burning of stumps after logging. On the other hand, for the Fulani and fons ethnic groups, apart from mangrove planting and their rational management, propose participatory management and the planting of other species for fons populations while the Fulani suggest mainly the promotion of good management of conflicts between farmers and herders. The adoption of these strategies has been strongly influenced by the ethnic group of the herder (p ≤ 0.001).