The present study aimed to explore the relationship between perceived parenting style and the gender role identity of young adults. Additionally, the study also tried to unravel the gender role identity of the parents to see the pattern of gender role identity across the two generations. The study was a cross-sectional one, conducted on 100 young adults and their parents who consented to participate in the study. Most of the young adults were graduate students from different colleges and universities in India.
In terms of their gender role identity, the majority of male young adults were found to belong to the category of Androgynous (54%), followed by Undifferentiated (20%). On the other hand, a greater percentage of young adult females were found to be feminine (46%), followed by Androgynous and undifferentiated (both being 22%). Androgynous gender role encompasses both masculine and feminine patterns of behaviour and is thus less stereotyped towards gender. As Datan (2020) proposed, such individuals may have an adaptive advantage over solely masculine or feminine individuals. This variation in gender role identity between males and females may reflect that the males are more adaptive and adhere to a more flexible pattern of gender role identity.
On the other hand, females showed a greater prevalence of feminine traits, indicating that females had a greater interest to adhere to sex-typed gender roles. This might be the result of cultural affirmation for females to adhere to sex-type gender roles for approval, specifically in the Indian culture. Masculine traits are found to be less prominent in young adults with only 7 males and 5 females rating themselves as masculine. The Bem Sex Role Inventory defines masculinity as being self-reliant, competitive, aggressive, and having leadership abilities. These masculine qualities, however, were not seen to be favored by young adults.
Moreover, interestingly, for both mothers and fathers, androgyny came out as a prominent gender role. Androgyny can be seen as specifically high in the age group between 45 to 49 years for mothers (24 mothers out of 50 in this age range reported as androgynous) (Table 3). In the case of fathers, androgyny is higher in the age group between 50 to 54 (18 fathers out of 41 in this age range reported as androgynous) (Table 3). It might be that with age people become more inclined towards adaptive behaviour than sex-typed characteristics (Neugarten, 1968; Sinnott, 1984). Similar findings were also reported by Fischer (1981), who suggested that with age, people begin to hold less rigid views about gender and tend to demonstrate contextually appropriate behaviour (Fischer & Narus, 1981).
The current study also sought to explore how the different parenting styles are related to gender role identity formation in young adults. Results show some interesting trends. On correlating perceived parenting styles and gender role identity of young adults, it was seen that young adults with undifferentiated gender role identities rated their mothers to be more permissive. In the case of fathers, a positive correlation between fathers’ permissive parenting style and young adults’ masculinity can be seen. Several research suggests that permissive parenting is not the most suitable parenting style (Alizadeh et al., 2011). Permissive parenting may have an array of negative effects on the offspring (Whitney & Froiland, 2015). Such parents do not impose any restrictions on their children's behaviour and neither do they regulate their behaviours, thus failing to be appropriate role models for their children. It has been found that children of permissive and over-permissive parents are often insecure, aimless, irresponsible, lacks self-esteem, and are more likely to be delinquent (Barton & Hirsch, 2015).
Although the sample size of the present study is small, there is a clear indication that in both cases of mothers and fathers, a permissive style of parenting contributes to less adaptive gender role identities in young adults. Both undifferentiated and masculine gender roles have their own set of difficulties. The undifferentiated, unlike androgyny, is characterized by a lack of well-defined gender-based characteristics and they show inconsistent patterns of behaviour (Woodhill & Samuels, 2004), suggesting that such young adults do not have a well-formed gender role identity. This is an interesting finding as the area of undifferentiated gender role is yet to be explored more (Elm et al., 2001; Patzak et al., 2017; Major, 1979). On the other hand, a masculine gender role identity also cannot be considered a very adaptive gender role identity. Research is primarily focused on males’ adherence to traditional gender roles. Findings indicate that males who show greater commitment towards masculine gender role may exhibit masculine gender role stress, show an increased risk of abusive behaviour (Copenhaver et al., 2000), and are also at a greater risk of substance abuse (Wilkinson et al., 2018). The correlation between fathers’ permissiveness and young adults’ masculinity might indicate that, somehow, permissiveness in fathers may lead to the development of masculine traits in offspring, although there is a dearth of research in this area. One study highlighted the relationship between permissive parenting style and externalizing behaviours (characterized by aggression, and substance use) in female offspring (Braza et al., 2013). These externalizing traits are also linked to aggressive masculinity (Kulis et al., 2010). Negative correlations between fathers’ authoritarianism and young adults' masculinity can be seen. This is another interesting finding which shows that when fathers use an authoritarian type of parenting, the offsprings report less masculine traits. As opposed to permissive parenting, the authoritarian parenting style is characterized by a high degree of parental control and low warmth. Therefore, we can say that when the father’s control is less, the offsprings tend to be more dominating, and when the father’s control over their offspring is more, the dominating traits are reduced in the offspring.
The present study tries to systematically see the relationship between gender role identity and parenting style in the context of an intergenerational perspective. The aim was not only to see how parenting style is related to gender role identity but also an attempt was made to see if parental gender role identity has any reflection on their offspring. It was seen that the proportion of specific gender role identity of young adults has a directly proportional relationship with the specific gender role of fathers and mothers. This is especially true in the case of Androgyne. The majority of androgynous young adults had parents having proportionately high androgynous traits (80% of fathers and mothers were androgynous). Although the sample was small and more critical analysis may be required to establish such a relationship, our study was among very few to date to try to systematically see such a relationship. Parental role in gender identity development is an area that needs more definite and systematic exploration, specifically in the present context where the focus is more diverted towards studying alternate gender roles and their mechanism, this important aspect of parenting and its influence in forming gender role identity has somehow receded to the background. Further studies can also focus on undifferentiated gender role identity and its formation. This study was done on typical families, thus alternative family patterns, and the children of single and divorced parents should be considered.
The parenting style adopted by the parents undoubtedly plays an important role in guiding the children in their quest for self-identity. Parental inputs serve as building blocks of their child’s gender schema. Thus, proper guidance and parental attention are crucial in this regard. The current study was, therefore, an attempt to shed some light on this area. This knowledge can be used in designing psychological management strategies for adolescents and young adults as well as their parents who are having trouble defining their gender role leading to interpersonal and personal difficulties.