Chlorine and Chromium Elements, Proteins of Oxidative Stress and Dna Repair Pathways Are Related to Tumor Aggressiveness and Prognosis of Patients With Oral Cancer

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-281302/v1

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Chlorine and Chromium Elements, Proteins of Oxidative Stress and Dna Repair Pathways Are Related to Tumor Aggressiveness and Prognosis of Patients With Oral Cancer

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-281302/v1

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Background

Squamous cell carcinoma (OCSCC), the most frequent cancer of the oral cavity, is extremely aggressive, the response to treatment is poor and markers for prognosis of disease are scarce. The comparison of chemical and histopathological data obtained from the analysis of excised tumor fragments with the demographic and clinical evolution data is an effective strategy scarcely explored in OCSCC studies. The aim was to analyse OCSCC tissues for trace elements and protein expression of enzymes related with oxidative stress and DNA repair that can be candidates as markers of tumor aggressiveness and prognosis.

Methods

Seventy-eight tumor fragments from 78 OCSCC patients that had undergone ablative surgery were qualitatively analyzed by synchrotron micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) for trace elements. Protein expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) and thioredoxin (Trx) and DNA repair-related purinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease/redox factor-1 (Ref-1) and 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1/2) was performed by immunohistochemistry. Sociodemographic, clinical and hystopathological data were obtained from 4-year follow-up records.

Results

Disease relapse was higher in patients with chlorine and chromium presence and in those with tumors with strong OGG1/2 expression. Strong expression of SOD-1, Trx and Ref-1 was determinant of larger tumor. As expected, perineural, vascular invasions and alcohol consumption were markers of greater worse prognosis.

Conclusion

Presence of trace elements can be markers of disease prognosis. Strong expression of enzymes related with oxidative stress or DNA repair can be either harmful by stimulating tumor growth or beneficial by diminishing relapse rates. Interference on these players may bring novel strategies for the therapeutic management of OCSCC patients.

Translational Medicine

Metals

Synchrotron radiation

Oxidative stress

Repair enzymes

Oral cancer

Oral cancer squamous cell carcinoma (OCSCC) is the most common type of oral cavity cancers. These cancers predominanly occur between the fifth and the seventh decades of life and are the sixth most prevalent cancer type in the world population [1]. Despite the improvement in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, tumor relapse after surgical removal is frequent and the overall 5-year survival rates are low [2, 3, 4]. Smoking is the chief risk factor for OCSCC, followed by alcoholic addiction. HPV infection and genetic susceptibility are other OCSCC risk factors [5].

It has now been well established that non-essential metals and metaloids can induce carcinogenicity by favoring the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The formation of metal-mediated free radicals can cause several modifications in DNA bases, increases lipid peroxidation and elicits alterations in the body homeostasis of calcium and sulfhydryl [6].

Unbalance between ROS production and degradation leads to oxidative stress that may participate in the induction of inflammation and carcinogenesis [7]. Enzymes involved in the protection against damage from oxidative stress, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD-1), thioredoxin (Trx), and in DNA repair, such as purinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease/redox factor-1 (Ref-1) and 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG) are important natural defenses against cancer development. Those enzymes may eventually be used as targets for acquisition of prognostic markers and therapeutic strategies [8].

SOD-1 catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide radical into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) [8]. In the intracellular medium, metals react with H₂O₂ and generate hydroxyl radical (OH⁻) capable of acting against direct damages to DNA. Damaged DNA can be repaired by the action of OGG1 glycosylase, which excises the modified base [9]. Ref-1 protects the DNA structure against enzymatic degradation while the specific enzymes complete the repair [10]. The activity of Ref-1 is regulated by Trx. [10, 11].

Since OCSCC frequently relapses after surgery, it is of prime importance to determine the factors that contribute for the worse prognosis of those patients. In this study, we hypothesize whether differences in content in the tumoral tissue of metals and metaloids and in the protein expression of enzymes related with DNA repair and oxidative stress could be related to disease relapse. To this end, we analysed tumor fragments collected during the surgery of patients with OCSCC to match with the data of clinical evolution of those patients.

Study subjects

Tumor samples, demographic, hystopathological and clinical evolution data were obtained from 78 patients with hystopathological diagnosis of oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (Table 1). They were selected at the Outpatient Clinic of the Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho Cancer Institute (ICAVC) in São Paulo, Brazil, between January 2012 and May 2015. The follow-up period was 4 years. They were participants of an ongoing Genome Head and Neck Project (GENCAPO), involving a multi-institutional and multidisciplinary group that has been active since 2002. Tumor fragments inbedded in paraphin blocks were used for the analyses of protein and elementary characterization performed in this study.

Table 1

Epidemiological, clinicopathological and prognostic characteristics of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma.
Characteristics	Total
Characteristics	N.	(%)
Gender
Female	24	30.77
Male	54	69.23
Age, years
Mean	63.69
Standard Deviation	± 11.01
Median	63
Smoking
Never	14	17.95
Yes, in the past	23	29.49
Yes, currently	41	52.56
Consumption of alcoholic beverages
Never	17	21.79
Yes, in the past	27	34.62
Yes, currently	34	43.59
Tumor size (pT)¹
pT1	25	32.10
pT2	19	24.40
pT3	17	21.80
pT4	17	21.80
Lymph node (pN)¹
Negative	52	66.66
Positive	26	33.34
Vascular Invasion
Absent	55	70.50
Present	18	23.00
Not evaluable	5	6.50
Aggressiveness
Less aggressive²	18	23.08
More aggressive³	14	17.95
Not evaluable^†	46	58.97
Perineural Invasion
Absent	43	55.13
Present	27	34.62
Not evaluable^†	8	10.26
Recurrence
No	63	80.77
Yes	15	19.23
Death due to Ilness
No	50	64.11
Yes	28	35.99
Total	78	100.00
¹ TNM Classification (7th edition); ^†Did not enter in statistical calculations.
² pT3/pT4 (N0); ³ pT1/pT2 (N1).

Tissue microarrays

Tissue microarrays of the tumor fragments were made as previously described [12], with selection of two representative tumor areas, as evaluated by two experienced pathologists from tissue slides stained with hematoxylin/eosin, followed by extraction of two 1.5 mm diameter cylinders from each sample which were then added to the microarray receptor block using a tissue microarrayer (BEECHER INSTRUMENTS, Silver Spring, MD, USA). Sections were then removed from the TMA and mounted on microscopy slides. A pathologist checked the content of each spot. Spots bent or missing more than 70% of the tissue were excluded.

Qualitative Elementary Characterization

For the qualitative elemental characterization, tumor tissue samples (mean thickness of 450 µm; mean density of 0.54 g/cm³) were removed from the TMA and subjected to dewaxing and rehydration processes with xylene, alcohol (the quality and integrity of these reagents were checked or purity in each batch used) and ultrapure water. They were then deposited in plastic support with Ultralene® film (SPEX SAMPLEPREP, Metuchen, NJ, USA) and sent to the D09-XRF beamline equipment. For the elementary characterization, the synchrotron radiation-based µ-XRF technique was used to detect chemical elements from electron excitation energy absortion, which is specific for each element. To obtain the spectra, a white beam with a power range of 4 to 24 keV and dimensions of 2 mm² was applied to the samples for 20 seconds and excited the eletons. Nine measurements in a 3x3 matrix were performed and later an averaging was performed to obtain the final spectrum used in analyzes. For adjustment of characteristic X-ray spectra, determination of elements and their respective fluorescent intensities, an analysis of a certified reference sample was carried out, Standard Reference Material® 1577b “Bovine Liver”, produced by National Institute of Standards and Technology (Gaithersburg, MD, USA), under the same conditions as the test samples, PyMca 5.0.0 software program [13] was the basis for analyzes. Measurements of µXRF were performed in D09-X-Ray Fluorescence (D09-XRF) light line at the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory (Fig. 1), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil [14]. Spectra were obtained by the average of nine measured points and analysis was peformed in program PyMca 5.0.0. Each spectrum was verified, the characteristic peaks of the elements identified, and then identification values were assigned as (0) for absence and (1) for the presence of the characteristic peak.

Immunohistochemistry

Antibodies anti-SOD- 11:400 (SC-11407, Santa Cruz Biotechnology), anti-Ref-1 1:400 (SC-17774, Santa Cruz), anti-OGG1/2 1:100 (SC- 376935, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) and anti-Trx 1:100 (SC-166393, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) were used in immunohistochemistry reaction with REVEAL Polymer-HRP (Spring Bioscience), according to the manufacturer's protocol. For each reaction negative controls (absence of primary and secondary antibody) were used. Protein expression was independently evaluated by two different observers, and conflicting results were submitted to re-analysis. Protein analysis was semiquantitative so that samples were classified according to % of cells stained at: 0 (0% of labeled cells), 1 (< 10%); 2 (10 ≤ 50%) and 3 (> 50% of labeled cells); and by staining intensity in: 0 (negative), 1 (weak), 2 (moderate) and 3 (strong). Scores estimated from the % and intensity of staining were multiplied and their means calculated for each sample. On the basis of the final score, each sample was cathegorized as negative (0), weak positive (1 ≤ 3) or strong positive (> 3), according to method used by studies that performed similar analyzes to the present study [15, 16].

Statistical Analysis

For association tests, Chi-square test was used in bivariate analysis and, when necessary, Fisher's exact test, with a 5% margin of error and with Bonferroni correction. Multivariate logistic regression by modeling was used to adjust odds ratio (OR) and confidence interval (CI ≥ 95%). The variables that obtained a p-value of less than 20% (p < 0.20) were inserted by the backward method in multivariate logistic regression model, with the significant variables remaining at the end of the model, at each stage (p < 0.05). For overall survival analysis, it was calculated the time interval (in months) between dates of surgery and death by disease of each patient or the last return in cases of survivors. The time interval for recurrence-free survival analysis was calculated using as end points the dates of global relapse, or the date of the last return in asymptomatic cases. The Kaplan–Meier model was used for survival analysis, using the Wilcoxon p-value and the Cox proportional hazards to adjust p-values, and to hazards ratio (HR) and CI (CI ≥ 95%). The values of OR and HR were adjusted for lymph node status (TNM). All analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Table 2 shows the results of the multivariate analysis between, on one hand, the data on demography, habits, histopathological features of the tumor and protein expression in the tumor cells and, on the other hand, of occurrence or not of relapse or death. Patients aged over 63 years were sevenfold less likely to relapse than those below this age cut-off (p < 0.05). In addition, we also observed that patients consuming alcoholic bevarages were eightfold more likely to relapse (p < 0.05) and sixfold more likely to die from the disease than those that did not consume alcohol (p < 0.01). Also, in Table 2, patients with tumors with vascular invasion were thirteenfold more likely to relapse (p < 0.01) and sixfold more likely to die (p < 0.05) as compared with those with tumors without vascular invasion. Perineural invasion was not related to disease relapse but death rates were increased fourfold in patients with tumors with this feature (p < 0.05).

Fifteen trace elements were identified in the different tumor fragments analysed by micro-XRF, namely iron and zinc (present in 100% of the tumor fragments), sulfur and calcium (99%), copper (95%), phosphorus (94%), potassium (83%), arsenic and bromine (68%), chromium (43%), chlorine (36%), manganese (33%), nickel (14%), magnesium and cobalt (12%). The finding of chlorine in the tumor fragments was determinant of reduction of frequency of disease relapse in the patients by thirteenfold, as compared to tumor fragments without detectable chlorine (p < 0.05). In contrast, the finding of chromium presence in the tumor fragment was determinant of an eightfold increase in the % of disease relapse (p < 0.05, Table 2).

Also shown in Table 2, all four proteins analysed here by immunohistochemistry were expressed in both nucleous and cytoplasm of the tumor cells (Fig. 2). In patients with tumors with strong expression of OGG1/2, the frequency of relapse was reduced by twenty-fourfold as compared to those with weak expression of this protein (p < 0.01). Regarding the other three proteins, namely Trx, SOD-1 and Ref-1, no correlations were found with relapse or death rates.

Table 2

Logistic regression model between prognostic, clinicopathological characteristics, life habits and protein expression.
Features	Logistic regression model
Features	Relapse	Death
Age
> 63 / ≤ 63¹
OR	0.135	-
CI 95%	0.022–0.812
P value	0.029
Current alcohol consumption
Yes / No ¹
OR	8.437	6.391
CI 95%	1.098–64.806	1.672–24.422
P value	0.040	0.007
Vascular invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR	13.516	6.072
CI 95%	1.900-96.129	1.276–28.902
P value	0.009	0.023
Perineural invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR		4.054
CI 95%	-	1.00-16.443
P value		0.050
Chlorine
Present / Absent¹
OR	0.076	-
CI 95%	0.007–0.827
P value	0.034
Chrome
Present / Absent¹
OR	8.003	-
CI 95%	1.315–48.709
P value	0.024
OGG1/2 Cytoplasmic
Strong / Weak¹
OR	0.041
CI 95%	0.004–0.414	-
P value	0.007
SOD-1 Cytoplasmic
Strong / Weak¹
OR	-	2.592
CI 95%		0.458–14.654
P value		0.281
Trx Cytoplasmic
Present / Absent¹
OR	-	1.972
CI 95%		0.568–6.841
P value		0.285
¹ Reference variable.

In Table 3 it is shown that strong protein cytoplasmatic expressions of Trx, and SOD-1 and strong nuclear expression of Ref-1 were associated with larger tumor sizes. Strong cytoplasmic expression of Trx (p < 0.05) and SOD-1 (p < 0.05) were related to three and to fivefold larger tumor sizes, respectively. The strong nuclear expression of Ref-1 was associated to sixfold larger tumor size (p < 0.05).

In Table 3, we also found by multivariate analysis that the lymph node vascular involvement was increased by fortysevenfold (p < 0.001) when tumors had vascular invasion. There was a trend for lymph node involvement in tumors of smokers that was not statistically significant (p = 0.09). The vascular invasion in tumors also increased the tumor aggressiveness by fifteenfold (p < 0.05), whereas the presence of perineural invasion increased the vascular invasion by tenfold (p < 0.001). No association was found between tumor size and tumor vascular invasion (p = 0.211).

Table 3

Logistic regression model concerning lymph node, tumor size, aggressiveness and vascular invasion with clinicopathological characteristics, life habits and protein expression.
Features	Logistic regression model
Features	Lymph node	Tumor Size	Aggressiveness	Vascular Invasion
Smoking
Yes / No¹
OR	3.38	-	-	-
CI 95%	0.81–14.09
P value	0.093
Tumor size
≥ pT3 / ≤ pT2¹
OR	-	-	-	2.31
CI 95%				0.62–8.58
P value				0.211
Vascular invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR	47.16	-	15.67	-
CI 95%	8.35-266.17		1.49–164.3
P value	< 0.001		0.022
Perineural invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR	-	-	-	10.30
CI 95%				2.74–38.60
P value				0.001
Trx Nuclear
Strong / Weak¹
OR	1.14	-	-	-
CI 95%	0.256–5.11
P value	0.861
SOD-1 Cytoplasmic
Strong / Weak¹
OR	-	4.63	-	2.81
CI 95%		1.12–19.08		0.28–28.34
P value		0.034		0.380
Trx Cytoplasmic
Strong / Weak¹
OR	-	3.00	-	-
CI 95%		1.09–8.24
P value		0.033
Ref-1 Nuclear
Strong / Weak¹
OR	-	6.12	-	-
CI 95%		1.14–32.83
P value		0.034
Potassium
Present / Absent¹
OR	-	-	0.15	-
CI 95%			0.01–2.04
P value			0.158
¹ Reference variable.

In Table 4 it is shown that current alcohol consumption is a risk factor for shorter relapse-free survival and increased threefold the probability of disease relapsing (p < 0.05; Table 4). Current alcohol consumption also decreased the overall survival (p < 0.05). The four-year survival after surgery was only 42% in alcohol consumption and 74% in non-alcohol addicted (Fig. 3). The multivariate analysis also showed that alcohol consumption is a risk factor for shorter overall survival, with twofold increase in risk (p < 0.05; Table 4).

Patients with tumors with vascular invasion had lower probability of relapse-free survival (p < 0.01): within two years after surgery, 64% of patients with vascular invasion had disease relapse, as compared with 34% of those with tumors without vascular invasion. (Fig. 4). In the multivariate analysis, tumor vascular invasion appeared as fivefold increased risk for shorter disease-free survival (HR = 5.108, CI = 1.536–16.989; Table 4).

Two years after surgery, 93% of patients with tumor vascular invasion died, as compared with 26% of those whose tumors did not have vascular invasion (Fig. 5). Multivariate analysis showed that tumor vascular invasion was a risk factor for shorter overall survival, increasing threefold the probability of death (HR = 2.954, CI = 1.164–7.499; Table 4).

In Table 4 it is also shown that the presence in the tumor of chlorine was associated with fivefold decrease in the disease relapse rates (HR = 0.210, CI = 0.046–0.970). There was a trend not statiscally confirmed (p = 0.069) that presence of chromium would be related to shorter relapse-free survival.

Table 4

Cox model of prognostic factors and survival in patients which oral squamous cell carcinoma.
Features	Cox model
Features	Recurrence-free survival	Overall survival
Current alcohol consumption
Yes / No ¹
OR	3.247	2.370
CI 95%	1.022–10.135	1.035–5.423
P value	0.046	0.041
Vascular invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR	5.108	2.954
CI 95%	1.536–16.989	1.164–7.499
P value	0.008	0.023
Perineural invasion
Present / Absent¹
OR		1.871
CI 95%	-	0.730–4.793
P value		0.192
Chlorine
Present / Absent¹
OR	0.210
CI 95%	0.046–0.970	-
P value	0.046
Chrome
Present / Absent¹
OR	2.980	-
CI 95%	0.917–9.688
P value	0.069
Manganese
Present / Absent¹
OR	-	1.548
CI 95%		0.710–3.375
P value		0.272
Trx Cytoplasmic
Strong / Weak¹
OR	2.019	-
CI 95%	0.632–6.450
P value	0.236
¹ Reference variable.

The results of this study respecting the relationships between the histopathological characteristics of OSCC tumors and the data of the clinical evolution of the patients were confirmatory of the reports from the literature [17–23]. In several previous studies, the presence of vascular and perineural invasion of the tumor has been related with worse prognosis, i.e., disease relapse, shorter survival and higher death rates [21, 23]. In fact, the vascular and perineural invasion of the tumor are fundamental mechanisms for metastatization and recurrence of tumors and constitute important prognostic factors [18–20]. Regarding the demographic relationships, our results are also in agreement with the previous reports of older age being a factor for better prognosis [24, 25]. The classical relation between alcohol consumption and worse prognosis [26–29] was also documented here. Unexpectedly, in contrast with previous reports [30–32] the smoking habit was not determinant of worse prognosis. It is possible that, in our study, the fact that among non-smokers few had never smoked, and many were ex-smokers, has concealed this rather classical relationship. Therefore, in general terms, the Brazilian population sample studied here had the typical prognostic features of those from other countries.

Our research group was the first to investigate the presence of metals in oral cancer by µ-XRF analysis [33]. Using this simple and straightforward approach, it is possible to perform multielemental analysis without the disruptive preparation of the tissue samples. It is of note that among the fifteen different metals analysed in the tumor fragments only two had relationship with the disease evolution data of the patients. The presence of two of those two metals, chlorine and chromium was associated to disease relapse.

In the patients studied here, the concentration in the serum of the metals was not determined. Nonetheless, in none of the previous studies with elevated serum chlorine was found in oral cancer patients, in contrast, high concentrations of Cu and Zn were reported in patients with this cancer type but with no relationship with the clinical evolution or demographic data [34–36]. Our finding that the presence of chromium in the tumor was determinant of worse clinical evolution and that of chloride of better evolution suggests that the analysis of the tumor metal content may be important to unravel new mechanisms underlying the course of the disease.

Some hints of mechanisms whereby the presence of chromium may adversely affect the clinical evolution, with increased relapse rates, can be suggested by the studies of Shi et al. [37, 38]. Those authors postulate that reduction of hexavalent Cr to trivalent Cr generates oxygen radicals with activation of signaling pathways of apoptosis inhibition, via PI3K and AKT. The inhibition of apoptosis leads to the accumulation of mutations. This favors microenvironmental changes that stimulate tumor progression and relapse.

In respect to our finding of the relationship between presence of chlorine and decreased rate of tumor recurrence, it is possible that excess chlorine consequent to disturbances in the ionic channel function, specifically the chloride intracellular chanell 1 e 4 (CLIC1 CLIC4), lowers the cytoplasmic pH thereby inducing the tumor cell apoptosis. In fact, it has been recently shown that CLIC1 is involved in the regulation of the cell cycle and of cell volume, as well as in the regulation of apoptosis. It is postulated that CLIC1 has an important role in tumor development [33, 39, 40].

Regarding the protein expression of the four different enzymes studied here, only OGG1/2 expression showed relation with disease prognosis. Nonetheless, the expression of the three other enzymes, SOD1, Ref-1 and Trx were related to the tumor size. In patients with tumors exihibiting strong expression of OGG, there was less occurrence of disease relapse.

The protective action against disease relapse offered by strong OGG1/2 expression in the tumors can be ascribed to the reduction of ROS and of mitochondrial DNA damage resulting from the action of this enzyme. OGG1/2 inhibits the activation of p-AKT and of HIF1 which leads to decrease in progression and metastatization of tumors, as observed in mice models of breast tumor [41]. In OGG1/2 KO mice, ROS accumulation occurred, together with non-repair of oxidative damage generated in DNA by suppressing the Nrf2 pathway [42]. Progression of hepatocellular adenocarcinoma induced by phenobarbital to hepatocellular carcinoma was increased in the KO animals, which highlights the importance of OGG1/2 as a key enzyme acting in DNA repair [42]. Thus, our finding that disease relapse was less frequent in patients with strong OGG1/2 expression was in line with those anti-neoplastic actions of this enzyme.

Noteworthy was the fact that the expression of the three other enzymes that were unrelated to disease progression had otherwise strong relation with the size of the tumors. In this respect, strong nuclear expression of Ref-1 determined sixfold larger tumors, while cytoplasmic strong expression of SOD-1 and Trx were related to four and threefold larger tumors, respectively. The association between tumor size and the strong expression of these enzymes can be accounted for the activities of the enzymes that favor tumor growth. SOD-1 increases the oxidative burden, Ref-1 activates transcription factors such as early-response protein-1 (Egr-1), NF-κB, p53, HIF1α (AP-1), which are involved in various cellular processes, including cell survival and growth [43–46]. Trx-1 expression has been related to cancer development and spread [47]. Trx-1 has redox activity and is related to activation of different transcription factors of inflammation regulation, including NF-kB and activator protein-1 (AP-1) [11]. In addition, its action may increase expression of HIF1α, a hypoxia transcription factor [48], possibly by inhibiting the degradation of HIF1α [49]. Trx-1 binds and inhibits pro-apoptotic proteins, including apoptosis signal by regulating kinase-1 (Ask-1) [50]. Thus, increased protein expression of Trx-1 suggests that increase in the activity of this enzyme would favor tumor growth. This may occur by either altering inflammatory factors, or by activation of angiogenesis via HIF-VEGF.

The results show that detectable amounts chromium and chlorine in the tumor tissue, as well as the occurrence of strong protein expression of OGG1/2, SOD1, Ref-1 and Trx-1 may influence the tumor growth and predict the clinical evolution of OSCC. These findings may lead to the establishment of useful tools not only for disease prognosis but eventually for acquisition of new therapeutic targets.

OCSCC = Squamous cell carcinoma; μ-XRF = micro-X-ray fluorescence; SOD-1= superoxide dismutase; Trx= thioredoxin; Ref-1= purinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease/redox factor-1; OGG1/2= 8-oxoguanine glycosylase; HPV= human papilloma virus; ROS= reactive oxygen species; ICAVC= Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho Cancer Institute; GENCAPO= Genome Head and Neck Project; LNLS= The National Synchrotron Light Laboratory; Tissue microarrays= TMA; CNPEM= National Center for Energy and Materials Research; MCTIC= Social Organization overseen by the Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations and Communications; OR= Odds Ratio; CI= confidence interval; Cl= chlorine; Cu= copper; Cr= chromium; Zinc= Zn; PI3K= Phosphoinositide 3-kinases; AKT= Protein kinase B; CLIC1= chloride intracellular chanell 1; CLIC4= chloride intracellular chanell 4; HIF1= Hypoxia-inducible factor 1; Nrf2= Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; KO= Knockout; Egr-1= early-response protein-1; NF-κB= nuclear factor kappa B; AP-1= Activator protein 1; Ask-1= kinase-1; VEGF= vascular endothelial growth factor.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Committees of Ethics Research of the Federal University of Espírito Santo [CAAE: 49091515.9.0000.5060] and the Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho Cancer Institute [CAAE: 49091515.9.3002.5471]. The study was carried out in accordance with all relevant guidelines. As this was a retrospective study, the requirement for informed consent was waived. The GENCAPO project was approved by National Research Ethics Commission (CONEP) [Technical advice: 128/2012; CONEP: 16491].

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article and supplementary files. Extra information is available with the corresponding author upon request.

Competing interests

The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

Funding

This work was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa e Inovação do Espírito Santo (FAPES), grant number 80706487/18. ALEMA was supported by FAPES fellowship (Process: 71896880). ABA was supported by FAPES/PROFIX (Process: 83757490) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. AMAS is supported by FAPES (Process: 83965670). BVN is supported by CNPq fellowship (Process: 160990/2019-0). RCM holds a 1A Research Award from CNPq.

Authors' contributions

ALEMA and ABA carried out the experimental study and, analysis and interpretation of data and drafted the manuscript equally. RPS and RC collected clinical specimen and data. ALEMA, ABA, SOM and CJGP perfomed the elementary characterization. ALEMA, ABA, MMO, ARB, LLM, MS and LOT performed immunohistochemistry and data analysis. FDN and MS perfomed a critical review of the manuscript. RCM participated in the supervision and in the critical revision of the manuscript. BVN and AMAS contributed to the conception and supervision of the study, data interpretation and writing manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgements

We thank Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho Cancer Institute for making the OCSCC samples available through the Head and Neck Genome Project (http://www.gencapo.famerp.br/). We also thank Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory for carrying out the analysis of micro-X-Ray Fluorescence [Proposal 20150102 - Elemental micro-imaging and quantifcation of squamous cell carcinoma head and neck, microenvironment tumor and its relationship with hypoxia gene expression and oxidative stress].

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Chlorine and Chromium Elements, Proteins of Oxidative Stress and Dna Repair Pathways Are Related to Tumor Aggressiveness and Prognosis of Patients With Oral Cancer

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Tissue microarrays

Qualitative Elementary Characterization

Immunohistochemistry

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