With the introduction of tenets from positive psychology into the study and practice of language learning (e.g., Lake, 2013; Mercer & MacIntyre, 2014), there has been a shift from the study of the debilitating effects of negative emotions to the enabling power of positive ones. In particular, the role of enjoyment in language learning has received considerable attention since Dewaele and MacIntyre’s (2014) original study. The influence of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) on a range of positive outcomes, such as willingness to communicate (Dewaele, 2019), language development (Saito et al., 2018), achievement (Jin & Zhang, 2018), and reduced anxiety (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014) underline the importance of continued research on this emotional construct.
Research on FLE has come to encompass a wide range of educational contexts, including Belgium (De Smet et al., 2018), Turkey (Uzun, 2017), Saudi Arabia (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018), Kuwait (Dewaele et al., 2022), Kazakhstan (Dewaele et al., 2019), China (e.g., Jiang & Dewaele, 2019) and Japan (e.g., Saito et al., 2018). There have as of yet been few studies on the dimensionality of FLE in these different contexts, however. Dewaele and MacIntyre’s (2016) pioneering study outlined two dimensions underlying FLE, Social and Private, using an international sample, and Botes et al. (2021) used this same data set to develop a short version of the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES), the S-FLES. In the Chinese context, both Jin and Zhang (2018) and Li et al. (2018) have proposed models of the FLES. However, in Japan, research on the dimensions underlying FLE remains sparse, with only Saito et al. (2018) reporting the results from exploratory factor analysis (EFA) in their study focused on emotion, motivation and second language comprehensibility development.
As the number of studies in Japan investigating the impact of positive emotions, and FLE in particular, increases (e.g., Inada, 2022; Inada & Inada, 2021; Kitaoka, 2021; Xethakis et al., 2022), there is a need to place research in this area on a more secure foundation. Differences in learners’ experiences of positive emotions may exist between cultures (MacIntyre & Vincze, 2017), and thus the dimensions that underly the FLES in a sample of international learners, or Chinese learners, may not be the same as those for learners in the Japanese context. This study aims to address this gap in research on FLE by examining the dimensionality of this emotional construct among Japanese university-level English language learners and add to the knowledge base in this area by providing a better understanding of the nature and sources of this emotion in Japanese leaners of English.
Positive Emotion in SLA Research
With few exceptions, the study of learners’ affective states has received limited attention in educational research until recent decades (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). In the area of second language acquisition, this has been especially true, reflect the field’s emphasis on cognition and its role in language learning (Swain, 2013). Even in the exceptions to this cognitive paradigm, research on affect in language learning has often focused on its debilitating and limiting effects, such as Krashen’s (1985) proposal of the affective filter, or the impact of forms of anxiety (e.g., Young, 1991), with Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA) one of the most studied negative emotions (Horwitz, 2010).
However, following the broader shift in the field of psychology from a focus on emotional pathology to the factors that enable well-being (e.g., Seligman, 2011; Csikzentmihalyi, 2008), a similar redirection has taken place in the psychology of language learning (see Mercer & MacIntyre, 2014), moving from an emphasis on overcoming negative affect to an appreciation of the possibilities of positive emotion. One particular positive emotion, enjoyment, has taken a central role in the study of positive emotion in language learning. Not only has it become one of the most often investigated of these emotions but has also served as a representative for the influence of positive emotions in the language classroom more generally (Botes, 2022).
First conceptualized by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014), foreign language enjoyment is based on two strains of the positive psychology movement. The first of these is Fredrickson’s (2001, 2013) broaden and build theory. In this theory, positive emotions act to broaden the courses of action available to an individual in a particular situation, widen their scope of attention, and in turn, cause them to engage more fully with their environment. In this state, they are more open to new experience and new information (Fredrickson, 2001). In the language learning context, positive emotions act to enhance learners’ awareness of language input, enabling them to more easily absorb the L2 (Dewaele et al., 2018). In addition to their learner-internal influences, positive emotions also help to build relationships with others by encouraging an urge to explore and play, as well as an openness to new experiences (Fredrickson, 2001), which when shared with others encourages social bonds and group cohesion (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017). The second foundation of foreign language enjoyment lies in Csikszentmihalyi’s (2008) notion of optimal experiences. Such experiences provide opportunities for individuals to apply their abilities and skills to achieve a desired end or goal. The need to apply oneself in order to achieve an end, and the attendant sense of accomplishment, novelty and personal growth, is what makes the activity enjoyable by Csikszentmihalyi’s definition, rather than simply pleasurable, the feeling one has when one’s more basic needs, such as food or rest, are met. Placing this concept in the context of language learning, Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) note that “it is the match between the challenge of the activity and the skill of the learner that form a foundation for enjoyment,” (p. 257). Enjoyment can thus be seen as a broad, positive emotion that underlies an individual’s flourishing inside and outside the classroom.
The importance of enjoyment, and the efficacy of positive emotions in the context of language learning more generally, can be seen in the positive outcomes that have been linked to this emotion. Botes et al. (2022), in their meta-analysis on the effects of foreign language enjoyment note four areas where this emotion has had a significant impact: FLCA, willingness to communicate (WTC), self-perceived proficiency and academic achievement. The association between FLE and FLCA, specifically that learners with higher levels of FLE experienced lower levels of FLCA, was found in Dewaele and MacIntyre’s (2014) initial study. This relationship has been substantiated in the majority of subsequent studies examining these two emotions in tandem (e.g., Dewaele et al., 2018; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019; Uzun, 2017). One of the first studies to examine the relationship between FLE and WTC was Khajavy, MacIntyre and Barabadi (2018). In their study on 1528 Iranian English language learners, the effects of FLE on WTC were examined at both the individual and classroom levels with the result that learning experiences which encouraged individual enjoyment and fostered a supportive atmosphere enhanced learners’ WTC. Dewaele (2019) similarly found that WTC among Spanish learners of English benefited from increased FLE. The influence of high levels of FLE on learners’ self-perceived English proficiency has been investigated in a number of studies. In both Dewaele and Alfawzan (2018) and Li et al. (2020), FLE was found to be a significant predictor of proficiency for learners at a range of levels of language ability. Similarly, in Japan, Inada (2022) reported that FLE was associated with gains in proficiency. With regard to language achievement, in terms of exam or test scores or grades, levels of FLE have been shown to significantly predict test scores (e.g., Jin & Zhang, 2018), and this is particularly the case for learners with either higher levels of FLE (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018), or higher language levels (Li et al., 2018).
In addition to these four, FLE has been linked to both motivation, with a case study by Pavelescu (2019) showing that positive emotion can help strengthen and maintain learners’ motivation, and language development, where Saito et al. (2018) in their study on high-school English learners in Japan, found that those with learners higher levels of FLE exhibited greater improvements in their oral proficiency over the term of the study. Moreover, FLES has been tied to a range of demographic variables, (age, gender, and multilingualism), and personality traits, such as emotional intelligence and grit (see Botes et al., 2022 for a review). In view of its centrality to the study of positive emotions and their impact on language learning, there is need to ground the measurement of FLE on secure empirical foundations. This study represents an initial step in this direction by examining the validity of four versions of the FLES prominent in the literature.
Measuring Enjoyment
The FLES was developed by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) for their original study on FLE and has subsequently become the most often utilized measure of both enjoyment specifically and positive emotion in the language classroom more generally (Botes, 2021). Taking Ryan et al.’s (1990) Interest/Enjoyment subscale as it basis, the 21-item FLES was designed to be a global measure of enjoyment in the language classroom, reflecting aspects of positive experiences, such as interest, creativity, pride, and a sense of accomplishment, as well as those of a positive classroom environment, such as social cohesion, feelings of group membership, and assessments of peers and the teacher (See Appendix). The reliability of the scale was estimated to be .86 using Cronbach’s alpha, and similar levels of reliability (α ≥ .85) have been found in other studies (e.g., Kitaoka, 2021: Shirvan & Taherian, 2021). The discriminant validity of the FLES was investigated through comparison with the FLCA, and a moderate negative correlation (r = − .36) between the two scales was reported.
The dimensionality of the FLES was first examined by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016) in their study on the structure of the FLES and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), where they carried out EFA on the data set from their previous study (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2104). The results of the analysis suggested a three-factor solution, with the FLCAS forming one factor, and surprisingly to the authors of the study, the 21 enjoyment items resolving into two factors. The first of these represented the social side of enjoyment such as a positive environment, a good atmosphere, nice peers, and supportive teachers. This factor was named Foreign Language Enjoyment-Social. The second enjoyment factor comprised items reflecting internal feelings of pride, interest, and fun. Dewaele and MacIntyre characterized this factor as expressing “private feelings of enjoyment from accomplishing something that was difficult and in spite of obstacles,” (p. 232), and termed it, Foreign Language Enjoyment-Private.
On the basis of this study, a shortened version of the FLES, with ten items, and reflecting both the private and social dimensions of FLE was developed. This scale has been widely used in a range of studies including Dewaele and Dewaele (2018), Dewaele and MacIntyre (2019), and Jiang and Dewaele (2019). While the reliability of this version of the scale has been consistently high ( ≥. 85), it should be noted that as Botes et al. (2021) point out, the choice of items included in this version of the FLES was primarily based on “expert knowledge” (p. 860) rather than factor analysis or other psychometric criteria. The structure of this version of the FLES was examined by Saito et al. (2018) as part of their study on emotions and language development in a sample of Japanese high-school English learners. An EFA on the 10 items together with a shortened version of the FLCAS revealed three factors. The items from the FLCAS loaded primarily on one factor, while the 10 items from the FLE were split evenly between two factors, whose content closely resembled the two factors from Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016). As such, these two factors were named Social Enjoyment and Private Enjoyment.
Dewaele and MacIntyre’s (2014) data set has also served as the basis for a short nine-item version of the FLES (the S-FLES; Botes et al., 2021). This version was developed using all 21 items from the original FLES. The original data set was split, with one sample used to determine the factor structure using EFA, and the other used to confirm this structure using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). An initial EFA was conducted using PCA with Promax rotation, due to the degree of correlation shown between the underlying factors in previous studies. This solution suggested four factors, but four items had weak loadings on all factors and were removed. A second EFA with the remaining 17 items resulted in a three-factor solution. In order to make the scale as brief as possible, the three most representative items from each factor were selected on the basis of theoretical considerations and confirmed using an algorithmic procedure. This nine-item, three-factor model was then tested using CFA, and displayed good fit with the scores in the second of the split samples.
Two versions of the FLES have been developed for use with Chinese respondents. The first of these comes from Li et al. (2018). Their study on over 2000 Chinese high-school English learners examined the factor structure of a 14-item version of the FLES, hypothesized to reflect the two dimensions found in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016). However, when this structure was tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), it was found to fit poorly. A series of EFAs and CFAs resulted in a three-factor, 11-item version of the FLES. The first dimension comprised five items, whose content was similar to that of the third factor in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016), and thus it was termed, FLE-Private. The second and third factor were each made up of three items, and termed FLE-Teacher, and FLE-Atmosphere, respectively.
A second Chinese version of the FLES has been proposed by Jin and Zhang (2018). Rather than using a shortened version of the FLES, Jin and Zhang began their examination of the structure of the FLES with all 21-items from the original FLES. A series of EFAs using PCA with Direct oblimin rotation revealed a three-factor structure. The first factor, comprising three items related to learners’ assessment of the teacher, was named Enjoyment of Teacher Support. The second factor, with 9 items, was named Enjoyment of English Learning. The content of this factor resembled those from previous studies concerned with private feelings of enjoyment. The third factor, named Enjoyment of Student Support, had five items, all of which were related to social cohesion and peer relationships. Jin and Zhang named this 17-item version of the FLES the English Classroom Enjoyment Scale.
The versions of the FLES outlined above differ in both the number of items in the scale (from 9 to 17), and the number of underlying dimensions (two versus three), as well as the item content of each of these dimensions (See Table 1). Moreover, the only version whose dimensionality has been investigated in the Japanese context is the 10-item version of the FLES (Saito et al., 2018). The validity of the other versions of the FLES in the Japanese context, as well as the validity of the 10-item FLES in a different sample of Japanese learners, remains an open question. As Flake and Fried (2020) point out, measurement is a “foundational aspect of the research process,” (p. 458), and construct validation is an indispensable part of this. This may be especially true in the measurement of affective states, such as enjoyment, whose experiential aspects may differ across cultures (MacIntyre & Vincze, 2017).
Table 1
Structure and Content of Four Versions of the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES)
Source | # Items | # Factors and Factor Names | Factor Content |
Botes et al. (2021) | 9 | 1. Teacher Appreciation 2. Personal Enjoyment 3. Social Enjoyment | 15, 16, 17 4, 8, 9 19, 20, 21 |
Saito et al. (2018) | 10 | 1. Social Enjoyment 2. Private Enjoyment | 3, 4, 7, 9, 11 10, 12, 14, 18, 21 |
Li et al. (2018) | 11 | 1. FLE-Private 2. FLE-Teacher 3. FLE-Atmosphere | 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 15, 16, 17 10, 18, 19 |
Jin and Zhang (2018) | 17 | 1. Enjoyment of Teacher Support 2. Enjoyment of English Learning 3. Enjoyment of Student Support | 15, 16, 17 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12 14, 18, 19, 20, 21 |
Note: Item numbers listed under factor content are those from Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016). |
To address these issues, and further, to provide a better understanding of the nature of positive emotions in language learning classroom, this study aims to investigate the dimensions underlying FLE in the context of Japanese university language learners as well as examine their characterizations of enjoyable experiences.
Research Questions
This study is framed by two research questions:
Research Question 1: What are the dimensions of FLE for Japanese university-level English learners? More specifically, are the proposed models of the FLES valid measures of FLE in this context?
Research Question 2: What do these learners report as sources of enjoyment in the classroom?