hAT-MSCs: sources, culture, and characterization. The cells were obtained from commercial and human sources.
Commercial hAT-MSCs: Cells were obtained from the POIETICS Bank Adipose-Derived Stem Cells (cat. #PT-5006, donor 34464. The cell type was confirmed by the presence of clusters of differentiation (CDs), such as CD13, CD29, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105, and CD166, and by the absence of CD14, CD31, and CD45. They were tested negatively for mycoplasma, bacteria, yeast, and fungi by the supplier company. A frozen vial containing ~ 1 × 106 cells was thawed at 37 °C and plated in a 25 cm2 flask (TPP). Cells were cultured in DMEM medium (Sigma) containing 10% FBS (Cripion), 100 units/mL penicillin (Gibco), 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Gibco), 50 mg/L gentamicin (Sigma), and 2.5 mg/L fungizone (Sigma). After 24 h, the debris and non-adherent cells were gently removed [36]. When adherent cells reached 80% confluence (passage1: P1), hAT-MSCs were detached with 0.25% trypsin/1 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (Sigma) and plated in flasks at a density of 1.5×104 cells/75 cm2 (passage 2: P2). Cellular density was determined by manually counting the number of cells at each passage[38]. The cells were named cell 0 (C0). C0 was expanded under the above-described conditions and used only from the 4th to 8th passage [29, 38, 39].
Patient-derived hAT-MSCs: Cells were obtained from the subcutaneous adipose tissue of two 30-year-old women who underwent abdominal liposuction at the Hospital de Clínicas in Porto Alegre (University Hospital) RS, Brazil. The patients agreed to participate in the study and signed a consent form (GPPG 2018-0374). Fresh adipose tissue was washed with PBS buffer, minced, and digested for 1 h in 0.1% collagenase at 37 °C. The digestion process was stopped by the addition of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) containing 20% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 100 units/mL penicillin (Gibco), and 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Gibco). The digested suspension was filtered through a 70 µm nylon mesh cell filter to retain tissue debris. The filtered suspension was centrifuged at 400×g for 5 min. The stromal vascular fraction (pellet) was resuspended in DMEM + 20% FBS (Cripion) medium and cultured in a culture flask of 25 mc2 (TPP) at 37 °C, with a humidified 5% CO2 atmosphere. After 24 h, non-adherent cells were gently removed [38]. When adherent cells reached 80% confluence (passage 0: P0), confluent cells (hAT-MSCs) were detached with 0.25% trypsin/1 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (Sigma) and plated in flasks at a density of 1.5×104 cells/75 cm2 (TPP) (passage1: P1). Cells were cultured in DMEM medium (Sigma) containing 10% FBS (Cripion), 100 units/mL penicillin (Gibco), 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Gibco), gentamicin 50 mg/L (Sigma), and fungizone (2.5 mg) (Sigma). These cells are named cell 1 – patient 1 (C1) and cell 2 – patient 2 (C2). C1 and C2 were expanded under the same conditions described above and used only from the 4th to 8th passage [35, 39].
C1 and C2 hAT-MSCs were characterized by immunofluorescence using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy.
Flow cytometry: hAT-MSCs were centrifuged (400×g for 5 min at room temperature), the cell pellet was resuspended in DMEM+10% FBS, and the cells were counted in a Neubauer chamber. Shortly after, the cells were incubated with antibodies at a concentration of 1:50 for 4 h at 37 °C. Then, the cell suspensions were centrifuged at 400×g for 5 min at room temperature, and cell pellets were resuspended in 200 μL of PBS. Ten thousand events were analyzed using flow cytometry (BD FACSCalibur™) [40]. Cells, only in passage 4 (P4), were characterized as hAT-MSCs in the presence of CD: CD34 (FITC mouse anti-human CD34 BD Pharmingen), CD45 (Human CD45 FITC Conjugate, Invitrogen), CD90 (P.E. Mouse Anti-Human CD90 BD Pharmingen), and CD105 (Huan CD105 R-PE conjugate, Invitrogen).
Confocal microscopy: An aliquot of 1 × 104 hAT-MSCs was placed on a slide and analyzed by immunofluorescence. Cells were maintained under culture conditions for 72 h to adhere to coverslips. Cells were then incubated for 4 h at 37 °C with the same antibodies used for cytometry: CD34, CD45, CD90, and CD105, at a ratio of 1:500. The negative control was prepared by incubating only the secondary antibodies, Alexa Fluor 555 (Invitrogen) and Alexa Fluor 488 (Invitrogen). Cells were gently washed in a coverslip with PBS (four times) to remove excess antibodies, followed by fixation with PFA 4% for 2 h. Cells were gently washed again with PBS, and the coverslips were fixed with Fluoromount (Sigma) onto a histological slide for further analysis. Images were acquired using an 8-bit grayscale confocal laser scanning microscope (Olympus FV1000). Approximately 10x15 sections with .7 μm thick confocal were captured parallel to the coverslip (XY sections) using a ×20 objective (Olympus, U plan-super-apochromatic, UPLSAPO 60X). Z-stack reconstruction and analysis were conducted using ImageJ software (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/).
Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) EVs isolation and purification: As cultured hAT-MSCs (P4-P8) reached 80% confluence, DMEM+10% FBS medium was replaced by DMEM FBS-free (to avoid isolated vesicles contamination by FBS proteins). After 72 h of culture, the medium was collected for vesicles isolation and the cells remained in culture. To recover from the stress caused by FBS removal, the remaining cells were supplemented with DMEM+10% FBS for 72 h [29].
For EVs isolation, the medium was collected and centrifuged (3 times) at 4 °C: (1st: 400×g for 15 min, 2nd: 2000×g for 15 min, and 3rd: 10,000×g for 30 min). The supernatants were filtered through a 0.22 μm membrane. The isolation was completed by centrifugation (100,000×g at 4 °C for 2 h). The supernatant was discarded, PBS was used to wash the pellet containing EVs, and the cell suspension was centrifuged at 100,000×g at 4 °C for 2 h [41]. Finally, the pellet was resuspended in 100 µL of PBS and stored at – 20 °C[38]. EVs protein content was quantified using a bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (Thermo Scientific Pierce™) [38]. The vesicles isolated from C0, C1, and C2 cells were named EV0, EV1, and EV2, respectively.
EVs characterization: EVs were characterized by flow cytometry and the identification of membrane proteins CD63 and CD81 [42]. First, EVs were incubated with magnetic beads (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Invitrogen™) coated with primary antibody CD63 (Exosome-Human CD63, Thermo Fisher Scientific - Invitrogen™) and CD81 (Exosome-Human CD81, Thermo Fisher Scientific - Invitrogen™) for 18 h at 4 °C under gentle stirring. For each preparation, 10 µL of a 1 mg/mL EVs suspension was applied. To remove excess beads, EVs were washed with PBS: 2mL of PBS was added for 5 min, then the tube was placed in a magnet for 1 min, and the supernatant was discarded. Then, CD63 (CD63 Anti-human Mouse, FITC, Clone: MEM-259, Invitrogen ™) and CD81 (P.E. Anti-Human Mouse CD81 Clone JS-81, BD Pharmingen ™) antibodies (without granules) were added to the solution containing the EVs + magnetic beads. After 1 h of incubation, the EVs were gently washed by placing the tube on a magnet for 1 min, discarding the supernatant. We added 2mL of PBS (to remove excess antibody) for 5 min and again placed the tube on a magnet for 1 min and discarded the supernatant. Finally, the EVs were resuspended in 200 μL PBS for analysis. Ten thousand events were analyzed by flow cytometry.
To measure the particle size and polydispersity index (PDI), we used photon correlation spectroscopy. The EVs suspension derived from hAT-MSCs (50 µL) at 1 mg/mL was diluted in 1 mL of PBS. All analyses were performed in triplicate using a Malvern Nano-ZS90® (Malvern Instruments, England) at 25 °C.
EVs purity measurement: Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis, using a direct examination technique, was used to evaluate EV purity and diameter sizes [37]. EVs suspension (10 µL), 1 mg/mL of protein, was aliquoted onto a grid covered with carbon film (formvar/carbon) and dried at room temperature. Uranyl was used as a contrast agent. The sample was analyzed by TEM at 120Kv (JEM 1200 Exll-JEOL).
EVs Labeling: EVs were labeled with the red fluorescent membrane dye PKH26 (MINI26, Sigma). In brief, the EVs-containing PBS solution was centrifuged 100,000×g for 2 h at 4 °C, and the pellet was suspended with the diluent of the fluorescent kit. Filtered PKH26 (4 mM) and EVs (200 μg/mL) were mixed at a ratio of 1:1 for 5 min, followed by the addition of 5% BSA. To remove excess dye, the EVs were washed three times, 5 mL of PBS was added and centrifuged at 100,000×g for 2 h at 4 °C, and the supernatant was discarded. In the last centrifugation, the stained EVs pellet was suspended in PBS (0.5 mL). The solution was filtered through a 0.2 μm membrane filter to remove dye aggregates [35].
Animals Adult (90–120 days old) male Wistar rats weighing 350–400 g were maintained under controlled light (12/12 h light/dark cycle), 22 °C ± 2 °C, with water and food ad libitum. All procedures were performed following the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the Brazilian Society for Neuroscience and Behavior recommendations for animal studies. The Ethics Committee for the Use of Animals at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (process number: 31888) approved this study. The schematic of the procedure is illustrated in Figure 1.
Focal permanent ischemia and sham procedures: Anesthetized animals (ketamine hydrochloride: 90 mg/kg, 450 µL/kg i.p. and xylazine hydrochloride:10 mg/kg, 300 µL/kg i.p.) were placed into a stereotaxic apparatus. After skin incision, the skull was exposed, and a craniotomy was performed by exposing the left frontoparietal cortex (+2mm to −6 mm A.P. and −2 mm to −4 mm M.L. from the bregma). A focal permanent ischemic lesion was induced by thermocoagulation of the motor and sensorimotor pial vessels [43–47]. Blood vessels were thermo-coagulated by placing a hot probe near the dura mater for 2 min, until a red-brown color indicated complete thermo-coagulation. Soon after, the skin was sutured, and the animals were placed on a heating pad at 37 °C until full recovery from anesthesia. Animals from the sham group were subjected to the craniotomy mentioned above. Animals were randomly allocated to three treatment groups: sham, ischemic (ISC), and ischemic treated with EVs (ISC+EV).
Intranasal EVs treatment: Intranasal EVs treatment was performed 24 h after the ischemic or sham procedure. Sedated animals (O2 flow rate at 0.8-1.0 L/min with Isoflurane levels of 2.5–3.0 %) slowly (during 20 sec) received into the nasal cavity a single 50 µL of EVs (ISC+EVs) or 50 µL PBS (Naive, Sham, ISC). The 200 μg/kg EVs dose was selected based on a dose/effect curve: ISC+PBS, ISC+100 μg/kg, ISC+200 μg/kg, and ISC+300 μg/kg (n=3).
Brain analysis Extracellular fluorescent vesicles (EVs) detection in rat brain: Distribution of EVs in rat brains was analyzed 18 h after intranasal administration of fluorescent EVs (PKH26-mini, Sigma) [32, 35, 37]. Anesthetized animals (ketamine hydrochloride: 90 mg/kg, 450 µL/kg i.p. and xylazine hydrochloride: 10 mg/kg, 300 µL/kg i.p.) were transcardially perfused using a peristaltic pump with PBS followed by perfusion with PFA 4% (both 10 mL/min, 100mL). Brains were dissected, immersed in PFA 4% (pH 7.4), and stored for a maximum of 7 days at 4 °C. Coronal brain sections 20 μm thick were obtained using a vibratome (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) at +2.20 mm, 0,20 mm and -1,88 mm of Bregma. Brain slices were mounted on glass slides and incubated for 5 min in the dark with 1 μg/mL Hoechst dye (33342 Sigma-Aldrich) in PBS to detect cell nuclei. The slices were washed with PBS (four times), and the slices were fixed with fluoro mount (Sigma). Slice images for counting EVs were acquired using an 8-bit grayscale confocal laser scanning microscope (Olympus FV1000). Approximately 10-15 sections with .7 μm thick confocal were captured parallel to the coverslip (XY sections) using a ×60 objective (Olympus, U plan-super-apochromatic, UPLSAPO 60X). Z-stack reconstruction and analysis to count the vesicles in the brain tissue were conducted using ImageJ software, and background noise was removed using the "subtract background" tool. Images were converted to binary masks using the default threshold option, and vesicles were counted with the "analyze particles" tool (size=0.05–0.90 μm). These settings were programmed into a macro and used for all analyzed images (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/) (n = 3 naive and n = 5 ischemic for each group, 3 sections per rat per group).
Short-term infarct volume: For the short-term evaluation of infarct volume, Naive, Sham, ISC, ISC+EV0, and ISC+EV2 groups were sedated 48 h after treatment (O2 flow rate of 0.8 -1.0 Â mL/min with isoflurane levels of 2.5-3.0%) and culled. Coronal sections of the whole brain were sliced at 2 mm and immersed in 2% 2,3,5-Triphenyl-tetrazolium chloride (TTC). After 30 minutes of incubation at 37 ºC, the slices were dipped in 4% buffered paraformaldehyde (pH 7.4) for 24 hours. The infarct area was evaluated as an area devoid of red staining. Infarct volume was measured using ImageJ software [44] (3 rats/group, 6 sections/rat).
Brain Angiogenesis: After 42 days of treatment, animals from the Naïve, ISC, and ISC+EV2 groups were anesthetized and received intracardial injection of 50 mg/mL (500 µL) fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran amine (Merck) to label brain blood vessels. Rat brains were removed, immediately fixed in PFA 4%, and cut into 30 µm coronal slices in a vibratome. Images were acquired using a fluorescence microscope (Nikon). The images were taken from the ipsilateral and contralateral sides in the Secondary Motor Cortex (M2) and somatosensory regions (SS) using the coordinates: +2.20 mm, 0.2 mm, and -1.88 mm A.P. to Bregma (PAXINUS online Rat Brain Atlas: http://labs.gaidi.ca/rat-brain-atlas/) (n = 3 per group). Blood vessel parameters, such as the total length (sum of the length of segments, isolated elements, and branches in the analyzed area) and the number of branches (in the analyzed area), were quantified using the Angiogenesis Analyzer Plugin (Gilles Carpentier Research) ImageJ software (https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/).
BBB permeability Evans Blue in brain parenchyma: Naïve (n = 3), Sham (n = 3), ISC (n = 3), and ISC + EV2 (n = 3) animals were anesthetized 48 h after treatment (ketamine hydrochloride – 90 mg/kg, 450 µL/kg i.p., and xylazine hydrochloride 10 mg/kg, 300 µL/kg i.p.) and received 3 mL/kg of Evans Blue (EB) solution (2% in saline) through the gingival artery (Supplementary information 1). After 1 h, the animals were subjected to cardiac perfusion using a peristaltic pump (10 mL/min, with PBS, 100mL). The animals were culled, their brains were removed, weighed, and the whole brain was sliced at 2 mm for image acquisition for each slice. Then, all slices from each brain were macerated and homogenized in 2.5 mL of PBS and vortexed for 2 min. For protein precipitation, 50% trichloroacetic acid (2.5 mL) was added to the homogenate, incubated for 12 h at 50 °C, and centrifuged at 14,000 × g for 10 min. The concentration of the blue color was measured using a spectrophotometer (620 nm). EB dye was expressed in µg/g of brain tissue against a standard curve [48, 49].
CSF albumin levels: An albumin assay was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The CSF method was validated according to the FDA guidelines [50, 51]. HPLC-FLD consisted of an L.C. Shimadzu system (Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a 20AT pump, a DGU-14A degasser, a thermostat for a CTO-10A column, and a fluorescence detector, R.F. 20A. Data acquisition and processing were performed using the L.C. Solution software. The FLD was set at 278 nm (excitation) and 335 nm (emission). An Agilent reversed-phase ZORBAX SB-C18 column (5 μm particle size, 250 × 4.6 mm i.d.) was used. The method was performed using the following gradient conditions: solvent A (H2O + 0.1% formic acid) and solvent B (acetonitrile (ACN) as follows: A → 65% B → 35% (0–5 min), A → 70% B → 30% (5–10 min), A → 65% B → 35% (10–17 min). The flow rate was set at 0.7 mL/min. Sample preparation was performed by adding 10 µL liquor in 40 µL of ACN and mixing in a vortex. The solution was transferred to conical vials and 10 µL was injected. Albumin stock solutions 1 mg/mL in water were stored at 20 ± 2 °C. For each day of analysis, standard solutions of albumin were prepared at 0,1, 0,5, 1, 10, 50, and 100 µg/mL.
Behavioral evaluation Cylinder Task (CT.): The cylinder task, which allows the evaluation of motor sequelae caused by ischemic insult [52], was used to determine the motor symmetry of the front paws. Exploration of the apparatus by the rats was evaluated when they raised their bodies and contacted their paw(s) on the cylinder wall (20 movements were counted). The apparatus consisted of a transparent glass cylinder 20 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height. All animals were submitted to this task 2 h before surgery to verify basal forelimb symmetry. The CT was repeated on the 3rd, 7th, 14th, 21st, 28th, 35th, and 42nd days after E.V. treatment. The performance was recorded using ANY-Maze software (Stoelting Co., Wood Dale, IL, USA). The ipsilateral (to the lesion), contralateral, or both front paws preferences were counted in a blind analysis. The asymmetry of each animal was calculated using the following formula: asymmetry = (% of ipsilateral paw use = ipsilateral paw use/sum ipsilateral + contralateral + use of both paws) − (% of contralateral paw use = contralateral paw use/sum of ipsilateral and contralateral paws). The asymmetry percentage is converted into a symmetry percentage [43]. Groups: Naïve (n = 6), ISC (n = 22), ISC+EV0 (n = 17), ISC+EV1 (n = 16), and ISC+EV2 (n = 17). At the end of each task, the apparatus was cleaned using 70% ethanol solution.
Open Field Task (OFT): The open field task evaluates habituation to novelty (assessing short- and long-term memory-exploratory activity) and locomotor activity in an arena [53]. The apparatus consisted of a black cage measuring 50 cm in length × 50 cm in width × 50 cm in height. The sessions lasted 10 min (individually). The animals performed the task on days 7th, 21st, and 42nd days after EVs treatment. Short-term memory (habituation to novelty) was evaluated considering the decrease in locomotion during the first 5 min of the 1st session (7th day). Long-term memory was evaluated considering the decrease in locomotion during the first minute through successive sessions (from the 1st to the 3rd session). Groups: Naïve (n = 8), Naïve+EV0 (n = 7), ISC (n = 22), ISC+EV0 (n = 17), ISC+EV1 (n = 16), and ISC+EV2 (n = 17). At the end of each session, the apparatus was cleaned with 70% ethanol solution. The task was recorded and analyzed using ANY-maze 6.1 software.
Novel Object Recognition Task (NORT): The behavioral sessions lasting 10 min were performed on days 7th, 21st, and 42nd days after EVs treatment. At 90 min after the OFT session, Object Recognition (OR) short- and long-term memories were evaluated [54]. The animals were individually placed on the periphery of the arena for further exploration. Two identical familiar objects (FOs) were placed in the arena, and animals could explore them for 10 min. Sniffing and touching the objects were considered exploratory behaviors. Ninety minutes after the training session, each animal was placed back into the arena to evaluate short-term memory. One of the two FOs used in the training session was replaced by a new distinct object (NO). Long-term memory was evaluated 24 h after the short-term memory task session when the animals were placed back in the arena with the same FO used in the training session and the first test session (short-term memory); however, the same NO was displaced to a different position. In all sessions, the time spent exploring the objects was recorded using ANY-maze 6.1 software. Results are expressed as a percentage of the time spent exploring each object. Animals that recognized the novel object (short-term memory) or its new position (long-term memory) explored more than 50% of the total exploration time of both objects. Groups: Naïve (n = 8), Naïve +EV0 (n = 7), ISC (n = 22), ISC+EV0 (n = 17), ISC+EV1 (n = 5), and ISC+EV2 (n = 16). At the end of each session, the apparatus was cleaned using 70% ethanol solution.
Elevated Plus-Maze Task (EPMT): The EPMT task is widely used to study anxiety-like behavior [55]. The apparatus had two open arms (50 cm long × 10 cm wide) and two closed arms (50 cm long × 10 cm wide × 40 cm high), separated by a central platform (5 cm long × 5 cm wide). The apparatus was placed 70 cm above the floor. The animals were kept in a red-light area for 1 h before starting the task. ANY-maze software was used to record behavioral performance for 5 min. The percentage of time spent in the open and closed arms was also assessed. Anxiety-like behavior was considered as the increase of time spent on closed arms. Each animal was exposed this once on the 7th day after treatment with EVs. At the end of each session, the equipment was cleaned with 70% alcohol.
Statistical Analysis The size of the brain lesion, BBB integrity, number of vesicles found in brain tissue, and angiogenesis analysis were evaluated by unpaired t-tests. Two-way RM ANOVA was applied for CT, followed by Sidak's multiple comparison test. Short-term memory was evaluated using an unpaired t-test. Long-term memory was evaluated using two-way ANOVA followed by Sidak's multiple comparison test. Unpaired t-tests were used for the NORT, with a theoretical average of 50%. Data are reported as the mean ±SD. All analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism version 6.0.