After the data were analysed, five key categories in the cultural perceptions of child abuse among parents in Indonesia were identified: 1) The definition of child abuse, 2)The classification of child abuse, 3) The frequency of the occurrence, which can cause it to be categorized as child abuse, 4) The level of child abuse (mild, moderate, and severe), and 5) The difference between violence and discipline.
Definition of Child Abuse
The perception of CA according to the FGDs was that violence happens because parents’ unstable emotions cause physical and mental injury to children. Below are several FGD quotes from participants that clarify their definitions of CA.
Therefore, violence is … parents’ unstable emotion. (P9, male, Bangka)
Violence … injures … children physically and mentally … (A5, male, Palembang)
Classifications of Child Abuse (CA)
Physical Abuse
Participants mentioned the following examples of physical abuse:
… hitting, kicking, stepping on, and ‘God forbid’, hopefully no punching, until they bleed. (P3, male, Madura)
… if you just pinch as physical violence, you may beat too… (A11, male, East Nusa Tenggara)
… tweaking ears if done too hard could also mean physical violence. (A4, female, Sundanese)
… those who came from Sumatra may be able to accept it, and it has been a tradition… in raising children … this means love (P9, male, Bangka)
We found that participants believed that physical abuse occurs when there are beatings, including hitting, kicking, stepping on, punching, throwing things, and tweaking ears. Sumatrans mentioned that swinging their children around is accepted and means showing love and affection.
Emotional Abuse
Participants mentioned the following examples of emotional abuse:
… emotional abuse is when the violence occurs without a reason… (P1, male, Sundanese)
… mental abuse includes when we make them scared… (A3, male, Sulawesi)
Making the children scared, I think we do that as a reminder only… (P3, female, Madura)
… while being scolded is also actually a mental violence... (K5, female, Sundanese)
This is the characteristic of people from Medan, Papua, Kupang. Our high-pitched voice doesn’t mean emotional abuse, but if we do something physical, that is violence. (A10, male, Papua)
The participants believed that emotional abuse includes yelling and scolding for no reason. Scaring children was inconsistently considered abuse, since some said this can be a type of violence but others did not. Those from Papua, Kupang, Betawi, and Palembang cultures agreed that a loud voice does not necessarily mean violence; it is a cultural habit and not intended to cause harm.
Sexual Abuse
Participants mentioned the following examples of sexual abuse:
… sexual abuse means touching sensitive parts … (A4, female, Sundanese)
… touching … the private parts … if boys experienced this, … this could be described as sexual abuse. (P6, female, Betawi)
The participants believed that sexual abuse included touching private, sensitive areas and having sex. Sexual harassment can occur even if the child does not understand what is happening.
Neglecting
Participants mentioned the following examples of neglect:
It’s the parents’ obligation to fulfil what the children need… However, if we can’t afford, then we can’t force ourselves, this way it’s not violence… (A9, female, Lampung)
The participants believed that neglect included situations in which parents cannot afford to obtain what their children need. However, this ability in accordance with economic conditions and cannot always be helped.
Exploitation
Participants mentioned the following examples of exploitation:
Work is not for earning money, only help at home. If we ask them to work outside … that way, it means we are abusing our children... (A4, female, Betawi)
Exploitation occurs when children are asked to work out of economic need, but asking them to help their parents at home voluntarily for educational purposes so that the children can be independent is allowed; this help includes cleaning the house, washing dishes, ironing and sweeping the floor. This is the way parents teach children to be disciplined, and it does not equate to violence.
The Frequency of This Kind of Behaviour Can Determine Whether it is Described as Violence
Yes, once is enough if the children didn’t do anything wrong. If the children didn’t listen, you probably could beat them twice. However, beating doesn’t mean leaving any marks, only as reminder. If we can see the marks, this can already be described as violence. (A9, female, Lampung)
There were several opinions regarding the frequency of behaviours that could be described as violence. The participants did not describe the behaviours as violent if the physical contact only happened 1-2 times on the hand or foot, did not leave any marks or was performed only to remind the children to behave.
Level of Child Abuse (mild, moderate, and severe)
The participants described the level of child abuse in various ways:
… pinching is still mild to me. (P9, male, Bangka)
… mild is … on the hand, foot...(P4, male, Palembang)
Mild one is touching or “poking”… this is already a violence if touching an unnatural area. (P6, male, Palembang)
… violence usually happens only to scold the kid … moderate abuse usually happens by tweaking, pinching … severe abuse means hitting with things or something that leaves bruises…” (K1, female, Betawi)
The most severe abuse is related to “having sex” … holding [body parts] is still only mild … hugging is moderate…(A8, female, Central Java)
… if they touch some part of the body and the owner doesn’t allow this, it is mild… touching private parts is moderate, and severe abuse happens when a child is impregnated and you don’t want to be responsible for killing the victim … (A4, male, Sundanese)
… vision damage means severe abuse. (A11, male, East Nusa Tenggara)
… severe abuse is when they shout inappropriate words … they are asked once or twice and don’t want to do something and the words come out… (A3, male, Sulawesi)
… in Sumatera … Palembang people talk … harshly, with a high pitch … just according to each person’s cultural perspective. (A5, male, Palembang)
Betawi peoples’ characters are mostly hard, that’s why, when calling children, it’s normal to shout, I know that… (A1, female, Betawi)
The participants regarded various types of violence as mild, moderate, or severe. These terminologies included mild-moderate physical abuse such as pinching, tweaking, hitting the hand or foot, or hitting with an object; emotional abuse such as scolding or bullying; and sexual abuse such as touching sensitive parts and hugging. Abuse was considered severe if it leaves wounds, the child needs to be hospitalized and examined, or if the abuse included having sex. Severe emotional abuse included shouting inappropriate words. Using a high-pitched voice was not violent, as this practice varies according to the culture and perceptions of each parent.
The Difference Between Violence and Discipline
The participants described the difference between violence and discipline in various ways:
… hitting on the head and face are violence, but if performed on the hand, foot or elsewhere on the body… this is love… (P4, male, Palembang)
… it is hard to ask them to pray, so we hit the soles of their feet and also tweak their ears but not to injure them… or beat their soles using stick. (A4, female, Sundanese)
… pinching… sometimes hitting the thigh … but the objective is not to maltreat the children, but only to educate them so that they will be reticent and for character building. (P3, female, Madura)
Discipline and violence are quite similar, so we found some overlap between them. According to the participants, the difference between violence and discipline is based on the location where the blows land; for example, it can be considered violence if the child is hit on the head or facial area. The difference between violence and discipline depends on the objective; discipline is not intended to hurt children but to ensure a better future by educating the children so that they can behave and build character. Discipline means the activity is performed out of love.