Demography
A total of 83 informants 85.9% males and 14.1% females and 18 key informants were interviewed with an average age of 50 ± 11. Regarding their educational status 49.4% of the informants were unschooled while the remaining 50.6% had attended either primary or secondary school educations Table 1.
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the informants in the study area
Variables
|
Name of the Variables
|
Frequency
|
Percent (%)
|
District
|
Jabitenan
|
28
|
33.7
|
Semen Achefer
|
30
|
36.1
|
Bahir Dar Zuria
|
25
|
30.1
|
Kebele
|
Mankusa-Abdegoma
|
9
|
10.8
|
Jiga-Yelimodar
|
9
|
10.8
|
Abasem-Zegay
|
10
|
12.0
|
Sankra
|
10
|
12.0
|
Liben-Dankura
|
10
|
12.0
|
Yismala-Jankti
|
10
|
12.0
|
Yigoma-Huletu
|
9
|
10.8
|
Wenidata
|
8
|
9.6
|
Gomibat
|
8
|
9.6
|
Educational
Status
|
Illiterate
|
21
|
25.3
|
Informal education
|
20
|
24.1
|
1-4
|
15
|
18.1
|
5-8
|
24
|
28.9
|
10-12
|
3
|
3.6
|
Common Diseases Claimed by informants
Informants’ claimed, Malaria and Trypanosomiasis was the most troublesome human and animal health problems of the study districts respectively Fig. 2. However, viral diseases of the humans and foot and mouth diseases of the animal are the least reported health problems in the study districts. According to [24] report 61% of the zone area was exposed to malaria and 30% to Trypanosomiasis.
Medicinal animals and use value reports
In this study a total of 26 animal species were identified and recorded as a source medicine to treat 33 ailments. Animal derived medicines of Bos indicus, Trigona spp.and Apis mellifera were frequently reported species to treat various ailments. Moreover, Procavia capensis, Labeobarbus spp. and Hyaenidae carnivora and other animal derived medicines were also used to treat different ailments (Table 2,). Based on [15] study of 24 animals had been recorded and used as sources of remedies in Metema districtof Gendewuha and Kumeraaftit kebeles as a traditional medicine.
Use value report of the 83 informants showed that Bos indicus, Trigona spp., Apis mellifera, Hyaenidae carnivora, and Labeobarbus spp. were the most frequent use value reports (84%, 52%, 43%, 37% and 36%), respectively. However Tortoise, Spider and Guinea fowl were the least use value report of animal species (4%, 4% and 2%) respectively as shown in Table 2. Higher use value of animal traditional medicine indicate that particular animal species are used by large number of people while a lower use value show that the respondents disagree on the use of that particular animal species for the treatment of ailment [25].
Table 2: Medicinal animal species used by traditional animal medicine practitioner and its use value reports of individual animal species based on its relative importance
No
|
Species Name/Animal taxon
|
English Name
|
Local Name
|
∑iUVis
|
UV
|
%UV
|
1
|
Clarias gariepinus
|
Catfish
|
Ambaza assa
|
4
|
0.05
|
5
|
2
|
Potamochoerus larvatus
|
Bush pig
|
Asama
|
10
|
0.12
|
12
|
3
|
Bos indicus
|
Cattle
|
Ykenede Kbite
|
70
|
0.84
|
84
|
4
|
Equus asinus
|
Donkey
|
Aheya
|
4
|
0.05
|
5
|
5
|
Gallus domesticus
|
Chicken
|
Doro
|
14
|
0.17
|
17
|
6
|
Capra hircus
|
Goat
|
Fiyel
|
15
|
0.18
|
18
|
7
|
Hystrix cristata
|
Porcupine
|
Jart
|
10
|
0.12
|
12
|
8
|
Hyaenidae carnivora
|
Hyena
|
Jib
|
31
|
0.37
|
37
|
9
|
Phacochoerus africanus
|
Warthog
|
Kerkero
|
17
|
0.2
|
20
|
10
|
Phyllophaga spp.
|
White grub
|
Qimburs
|
5
|
0.06
|
6
|
11
|
Perdix perdix
|
Partridge
|
Qoqe
|
10
|
0.12
|
12
|
12
|
Silvicopra grimmer
|
Antelope
|
Midako
|
4
|
0.05
|
5
|
13
|
Panthera pardus
|
Leopard
|
Nebir
|
4
|
0.05
|
5
|
14
|
Labeobarbus spp.
|
White fish
|
Nech asa
|
30
|
0.36
|
36
|
15
|
Apis mellifera
|
Honeybee
|
Nib
|
36
|
0.43
|
43
|
16
|
Lopus starkii
|
Rabbit
|
Tinchel
|
4
|
0.05
|
5
|
17
|
Procavia capensis
|
Wood chuck
|
Shikoko
|
17
|
0.2
|
20
|
18
|
Trigona spp.
|
Stingless bee
|
Tazma Nib
|
43
|
0.52
|
52
|
19
|
Liotrigona spp.
|
Stingless bee
|
Tinign
|
15
|
0.18
|
18
|
20
|
Chiroptera spp.
|
Bat
|
Yelelit wof
|
10
|
0.12
|
12
|
21
|
Python sebae
|
Python
|
Zendo
|
9
|
0.11
|
11
|
22
|
Papio anubis
|
Baboon
|
Zinjero
|
6
|
0.07
|
7
|
23
|
Numida meleagris
|
Guineafowl
|
Jigra
|
2
|
0.02
|
2
|
24
|
Testudinidae
|
Tortoise
|
Eli
|
3
|
0.04
|
4
|
25
|
|
Snake
|
Ebab
|
5
|
0.06
|
6
|
26
|
|
Spider
|
Shererit
|
3
|
0.04
|
4
|
Animal Parts to be used for medicinal Purpose
A total of 25 animal parts and products were reported by informants to treat 33 types of ailments (Fig. 3). Among the total frequency of use report (381), honey and meat took the highest frequency of use report followed by butter (purified butter), milk, liver, fatty meat and cheese (stored more than 7 year) were describedFigure 3 andsome of them were mixed during preparation. Based on [15] animal body parts used as remedy of human diseases include fat, honey, milk, butter, urine, feces, meat, skin, bones, bile, liver, eggs, horn, etc. and some of these animal medicines need a mix during preparation [16].
Storage conditions of prepared Animal Traditional Medicines
Most of the informants (77.1%) stored animal-derived traditional medicines in a clean area, 7.2% stored in a dry area using glass and 3.6% stored in a cold area with or without glass. However, 8.4% of the informants did not store animal derived traditional medicine. This indicates that the Informants had traditional knowledge of storing animal-derived medicine in a clean area. This understood that traditional medicines derived from animals were more perishable than those medicines derived from plants. Therefore, animal-derived traditional medicines need proper sanitation and protection to enhance their shelf life.
Informants’ consensus
Based on the informants’ report of remedial action, 12 of the most reported ailments were calculated as an informant consensus factor (ICF). Results showed that average ICF value of 69%. The maximum degree of consensus was developed for remedy of evil eye (88%) followed by dry cough, swelling and hepatitis 82% eachTable 3. However, Hemorrhoids was the minimum ICF value remedy which is 40%. Informant consensus values below the average ICF value indicate that treatment of a particular ailment was in different animal parts and/or products, which implies heterogeneity of use reports (Table 3).
Table 3: ICF value of 12 selected ailment of treatments with animal derived medicines
Disease Category
|
Nur
|
Nt
|
ICF
|
Abdomenal pain
|
24
|
8
|
0.70
|
Asthma
|
12
|
5
|
0.64
|
Dry cough
|
40
|
8
|
0.82
|
Epilepsy
|
13
|
7
|
0.50
|
Hepatitis
|
12
|
3
|
0.82
|
Arthritis
|
27
|
8
|
0.73
|
Malaria
|
25
|
8
|
0.71
|
Rabies
|
9
|
3
|
0.75
|
Swelling
|
34
|
7
|
0.82
|
Wound
|
22
|
11
|
0.52
|
Hemorrhoids
|
6
|
4
|
0.40
|
Evil-eye
|
27
|
4
|
0.88
|
∑
|
|
|
8.29
|
ICF value (∑/12)
|
|
|
0.69
|
Fidelity level
The ethno-zoological uses of animals that are commonly known by the informants have higher fidelity level as shown in Fig. 4. Use of animal derived medicine from Liotrigona spp. used to relive dry-cough tend to have the highest FL (80%); followed by Labeobarbus spp. for swelling (33%) and a product obtained from stingless bees Trigona spp. for dry-cough (30%).
Preferential ranking
Preferential ranking was conducted to show the preference of one medicinal animal and its parts to the other. This can be conducted when different species used for the same illness. Based on 18 key informants report of 9 animal-derived medicines used to cure malaria, Processed products of Bos indicus (Cheese ≥ 7 year and Purified Butter ≥ 2 year) were ranked 1st and 2nd respectively Table 6 in the appendix. Therefore, both are used as an effective traditional medicine to cure Malaria. Moreover, ‘Tazma’ honey of Trigona spp., honey of Apis mellifera,’Tazma’ honey of Liotrigona spp., Bile of Capra hircus, meat of Labeobarbus spp.,and meat of Phacochoerus africanus were ranked 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th respectively. However meat of helmeted guinea fowl was the least preferred animal derived medicine to cure malaria Table 6. Moreover, dry Cough was treated by seven animal derived medicines. Out of these, chicken egg is the most preferred animal-derived medicine and ranked 1st. Larva and honey of honeybees and ‘Tazma’ honey of Trigona spp. ranked 2nd as shown in Table 7 in the appendix. However, whey of cow milk was the least preferred animal-derived medicine to treat dry Cough. Key informants’ reported of eight species of animal derived medicines to treat Arthritis. These were meat of Phacochoerus africanus, meat of Labeobarbus spp. and meat of Potamochoerus larvatus ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. However, meat of Procavia capensis was the least preferred animal derived medicine to treat Arthritis Table 4.
Table 4: Preferential ranking of 8 animal derived medicines to treat Arthritis based on 18 key informants
Respondents
|
Apis Mellifera
|
Phacochoerus africanus
|
Labeobarbus spp.
|
Potamochoerus larvatus
|
Hystrix cristata
|
Bos indicus
|
Clarias gariepinus
|
Procavia capensis
|
R 1
|
4
|
5
|
8
|
6
|
2
|
3
|
7
|
1
|
R 2
|
6
|
3
|
7
|
4
|
2
|
5
|
8
|
1
|
R 3
|
8
|
1
|
7
|
4
|
2
|
5
|
6
|
3
|
R 4
|
5
|
8
|
4
|
6
|
2
|
1
|
7
|
3
|
R 5
|
2
|
8
|
6
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
7
|
5
|
R 6
|
5
|
8
|
7
|
6
|
2
|
1
|
3
|
4
|
R7
|
1
|
8
|
7
|
6
|
4
|
2
|
5
|
3
|
R8
|
1
|
8
|
7
|
6
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
R8
|
6
|
8
|
7
|
5
|
1
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
R9
|
3
|
8
|
2
|
5
|
1
|
4
|
7
|
6
|
R10
|
4
|
8
|
5
|
7
|
2
|
3
|
6
|
1
|
R 12
|
5
|
7
|
8
|
6
|
3
|
1
|
2
|
4
|
R 13
|
5
|
6
|
8
|
7
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
R 14
|
6
|
5
|
4
|
8
|
7
|
3
|
1
|
2
|
R 15
|
8
|
5
|
1
|
6
|
7
|
3
|
2
|
4
|
R 16
|
8
|
6
|
5
|
4
|
3
|
7
|
2
|
1
|
R 17
|
4
|
8
|
2
|
6
|
7
|
3
|
1
|
5
|
R 18
|
6
|
8
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
7
|
4
|
1
|
Total
|
87
|
118
|
100
|
97
|
61
|
56
|
76
|
53
|
Rank
|
4th
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
6th
|
7th
|
5th
|
8th
|
Paired comparison
Paired comparison of 6 medicinal animal species was used to indicate the efficacy and popularity of animal-derived medicines to treat malaria as shown in Table 5. The result of paired comparisons revealed that purified butter ≥ 2 year, Cheese ≥ 7 year, ‘YetinignTazma’ honey of Liotrigona spp., and ‘Tazma honey’ of Trigona spp. were the most popular and efficacious animal-derived medicines to cure malaria and ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th, respectively. However, bile of goat (Capra hircus) and meat of white fish (Labeobarbus spp) were the least popular and efficacious animals to cure malaria.
Table 5: Paired comparison of 6 animal derived medicines for the treatment of Malaria based on 18 key informants
Respondents
|
Bos indicus
(Cheese >7year)
|
Capra hircus
(Bile)
|
Liotrigona spp.
(Yetenegn Tazma)
|
Bos indicus
(Purified Butter> 2year)
|
Trigona spp.
(Tazma honey)
|
Labeobarbus spp. (Meat)
|
R 1
|
1
|
2
|
4
|
5
|
3
|
0
|
R 2
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
5
|
0
|
R 3
|
2
|
1
|
4
|
5
|
0
|
3
|
R 4
|
3
|
3
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
2
|
R 5
|
3
|
4
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
1
|
R 6
|
2
|
2
|
4
|
5
|
2
|
0
|
R7
|
4
|
0
|
2
|
5
|
2
|
2
|
R8
|
1
|
4
|
2
|
2
|
4
|
2
|
R8
|
4
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
0
|
1
|
R9
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
4
|
R10
|
3
|
0
|
3
|
5
|
3
|
1
|
R 12
|
1
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
0
|
4
|
R 13
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
5
|
0
|
2
|
R 14
|
3
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
R 15
|
4
|
0
|
3
|
2
|
5
|
1
|
R 16
|
5
|
0
|
4
|
1
|
3
|
2
|
R 17
|
5
|
4
|
2
|
1
|
3
|
0
|
R 18
|
7
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
Total
|
56
|
38
|
44
|
62
|
43
|
27
|
Rank
|
2nd
|
5th
|
3rd
|
1st
|
4th
|
6th
|
Informants Attitude on the Conservation Aspects of Animal Traditional Medicine
More than half of the informants (61.4%) reported the current status of medicinal animals’ as rare to obtain them and 38.6% of them perceived their status in declining state. The informants also reported the demand for seeking medicinal animals to treat ailments as rare (74.7%), increasing (20.5%), and decreasing (4.8%). Informants listed some of the threats that caused the decline of medicinal animals such as deforestation, hunting, climate change, agricultural expansion and shortage of forage, overexploitation of animal genetic resources, lack of modern medication, lack of shelter and lack of awareness. Based on the report of [26] extinction, overhunting, habitat loss/degradation/ fragmentation, invasion of non-native species, pollution, and climate change as main threats of global biodiversity. There is massive loss of wildlife across the globe due to over-hunting [27]. Therefore, informants practiced different techniques to conserve medicinal animals. For instance, 80.7% conserve animal traditional medicine by protecting the forests which are shelters of medicinal animals. Moreover, prevention of hunting, application of breeding, and raising awareness of the local people about medicinal animals be also practiced to conserve medicinal animals.
Informants reported modernization had a negative impact on the application and use of animal-derived traditional medicine. Because, experts abuse traditional healers as well as users to ban preparation and use of animal-derived traditional medicine and they consider it as a folk medicine. Thus, modernization made local peoples to forget the knowledge of animal derived medicine. As [17] noted knowledge of traditional healing practices using animals is fast disappearing due to modernization. This showed that loss of traditional knowledge has much impact on the development of modern medicine [14].
Inheritance of healing wisdom
Informants who practice Animal derived traditional medicine to treat ailments inherited the traditional knowledge from their parents, particularly fathers (47%), mothers (14.5%), and grandfathers, grandmothers and brothers (10.8%). Moreover, 12% of the informants inherited the animal traditional knowledge from friends, community neighbours, monks and nephews. However, 15.7% of the informants did not want to reveal the sources of their knowledge of animal derived traditional medicine. Informants (94%) showed willingness to inherit the knowledge of animal traditional medicine to their daughters (56.6%), sons (12%), families (8.4%), friends (2.4%) and researchers (1.2%). In addition 13.3% of the informants showed willingness to inherit the knowledge of animal-derived traditional medicine to any interested person. However, 6% of the informants did not want to inherit the traditional knowledge of medicinal animals to any person. Traditional healers in Ethiopia held their indigenous knowledge in secret [19] and showed interest to pass on the animal-derived traditional medicinal knowledge orally only to their eldest son, at their old age [28]
Attitude of urban inhabitants towards use of traditional medicine
A total of 57 individuals (73.3% males and 26.3% females) of urban dwellers were interviewed to assess the use of traditional medicine derived from animals, of which,43.9% were district Livestock and Fishery expertise including animal health experts, 29.8% are extension agents and 26.3% were district health expertise and officers.
Out of the total traditional medicine users of urban inhabitants, 56.1% used traditional medicine for treating ailments. However, 43.9% did not use traditional medicine for treating ailments. The reason of not using traditional medicines for treating ailments were the unknown dose of medicine used for treatment, doubts about the safety of the treatment and efficacy of traditional medicine. Moreover, the non-apparent use, availability and accessibility of the traditional medicine to one’s dwelling place limit the preference of using them as a traditional medicine.
Users of urban inhabitants (42.1%) used traditional medicine derived from both plants and animals, (12.3%) from plants only and (1.8%) from animals only. The reason of using much more traditional medicines derived from plants than animals was because of the fact that most of the world modern medicines are mostly derived from plants, and science affirmed their efficacy in laboratories. Besides plant–derived traditional medicines were easily accessible and had lower price than modern medicines and easily available. Users of animal-derived traditional medicine reasoned that animal remedies were natural, harmless, fast to treat, used as an ingredient in combination with other plant medicines and some of them are available on markets such as honey, butter, fish, milk, egg, liver and Tazma honey. 26.3% of urban user inhabitants reported traditional animal medicines were sold for treating ailments such as evil eye, hepatitis, asthma, wound and sexual disorders.
The knowledge of Zoonotic diseases was assessed in urban inhabitant users of animal derived traditional medicine. Users 84% knew and listed Zoonotic diseases such as Rabies, Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Anthrax and Black leg. This indicates urban inhabitants were more educated than the rural ones. However, 16% of them did not know about zoonotic diseases. Urban inhabitant users described major challenges on the use of animal-derived traditional medicine as follows: 22.8% described the challenge was a shortage of supply, 17.5% declared as lack of knowledge, 10.5% reported sanitation problems, and others listed the challenge was the dose of animal-derived medicine used for treatment is unknown and religious restriction on some of animal derived traditional medicine. Moreover, lack of scientific research and decline of traditional healers were stated as the main challenges by some of the users. Among the challenges a shortage of supply is due to over hunting of animals, deforestation and climate change.