The potential of microalgae for large-scale carbon capture and storage: A Life Cycle Assessment based on real-world data

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3147220/v1

To reduce the impacts of climate change, we need to rapidly decarbonise and remove the CO₂ society has already emitted into the atmosphere. One suggested method to do this is by growing, drying and burying microalgae. Brilliant Planet has worked for the past five years on developing a microalgae-based process to undertake carbon capture and storage from the ecosystem. Currently, the company has an operational three-hectare demonstration facility based in Morocco. An independent ISO 14040/44 compliant Life Cycle Assessment (which has considered the operational and infrastructure-based impacts) was undertaken on a hypothetical 30-hectare facility, using data from the three-hectare site. This LCA allows us to understand if the Brilliant Planet System (BPS) is a true carbon sink. This study shows that using low-carbon electricity, the demonstration facility can sequester carbon with an efficiency of 87% (7.5kgCO₂ sequestered per 1 kgCO₂e emitted). In addition, several additional elements for improvement have been identified, which will be used to improve the performance of large-scale systems further. Based on this, the Brilliant Planet System is a useful technology that can contribute to a global strategy to slow anthropogenic climate change.

Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences

Biological sciences/Microbiology

Physical sciences/Energy science and technology/Carbon capture and storage

2.1 Introduction

It is clear that to avoid 1.5°C degrees of warming, Carbon Dioxide Removal(CDR) must be a part of the solution, with the majority of mitigation pathways within the most recent IPCC Assessment Report requiring some level of the technology, in addition to renewable energy, with a median of 665 Gt to be removed from the atmosphere before 2100 (IPCC, 2022).

The purpose of this paper is to independently assess the potential for a specific microalgae-based Carbon Dioxide Removal system created by the company Brilliant Planet.

2.2 Literature Review

Various technologies and methods are currently being developed for carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). Around 35 operational commercial facilities utilise CCUS for CDR in industrial and energy applications, and an additional 300 projects are currently in various stages of development. (IEA, 2022).

These companies can be divided into two types, those using technology to re-utilise CO₂ as a valuable product (such as fuels, olefins, methanol, BTX aromatics, and urea (European et al., 2022)) and those producing a product that locks up the carbon for more extended periods, ranging from decades (polymers) to hundreds or thousands of years (carbonated storage or building materials). Both approaches have merit, as the valuable products displace the existing fossil fuel supply chain for these products, whereas the longer terms storage locks the CO₂ away from the atmosphere. These technologies can also be split between those which capture CO₂ from industrial sources (such as cement works or coal-fired thermal power stations) or those that take from the ecosystem (be it Direct Air Capture (DAC), weathering, or the oceans). Furthermore, Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) involves the production of organic material (such as wood) and then capturing the CO₂ when it is used (such as in a biomass-fired thermal power station). Methods for this capture include pyrolysis and the spreading of biochar.

A significant example of valuable products is Carbon Recycling International, which produces methanol in various countries, branded as Vulcanol when produced in Iceland. The Icelandic facility is of particular interest, as it captures CO₂ emitted from volcanic activity via a geothermal power plant, hence can be considered a type of Direct Air Capture (admittedly from a natural point source)(Wang et al., 2020).

Looking at biological systems, LanzaTech utilises a system producing the bacterium Clostridium autoethanogenum to produce ethanol from waste-gas streams (Handler, Shonnard, Griffing, Lai, & Palou-Rivera, 2016). LanzaTech’s system near Tianjin in China began operating in 2018 (Peplow, 2022).

Carbon Clean Solutions’ captures CO₂ emissions from industrial processes, such as power plants and cement factories, via a solvents-based process. Some installations of the technology are used for pure storage of CO₂, whilst others are for re-utilising the CO₂ within valuable products. As of October 2022, the company claims to have removed over 1.7Mt of carbon from 49 facilities globally("Carbon Clearn Technologies," 2023).

Carbon8 utilises Accelerated Carbonation Technology (ACT) to produce materials for the construction industry, such as aggregates. The feedstock for the Carbon8 process is industrial process waste (Hills, Tripathi, & Carey, 2021). The building material is known as CircaBuild, and the company has diversified into CCU with the production of fertiliser, CircaGrow ("Carbon8," 2022). A similar approach is taken by Blue Planet, who have pilot plants in California ("Blue Planet," 2023).

Enhanced weathering, another carbonisation-based process, is a solution some companies promote in which crushed basalt is applied to cropland. This was shown by (Buckingham, Henderson, Holdship, & Renforth, 2022) to have the potential to remove 1.3 ± 0.1 MtCO₂ yr⁻¹ through application to UK farmland. The article showed experiments suggest enhanced weathering functions slower than expected by proponents and suggested further research is required before large-scale deployment. Work by {Kelland, 2020 #189} shows the positive impact that crushed basalt can have on crop yields, and reductions in fertiliser, whilst a strong LCA of enhanced weathering was undertaken by {Lefebvre, 2019 #187}.

Moving to pure DAC systems, Carbon Engineering operates a DAC pilot plant which has been in operation since 2015, capturing CO₂ using an air contactor and then utilising a carbonisation process. However, this captured CO₂ is used for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR).

Climeworks’ direct air capture technology is particularly interesting. It works by extracting CO2 via an air filter, after which the CO2 is compressed into a liquid pumped underground into basalt caverns, which reacts in a carbonisation process. Climeworks’ first commercial plant, Orca, opened in 2021 in Iceland, with a capacity of 4000t year("Climeworks," 2023; Deutz & Bardow, 2021).

Whilst a range of demonstration, pilot, and commercial units operate globally, these are sequestering a small amount of the 665 Gt target for 2100. According to (IEA, 2022), the current pipeline of projects will be absorbing 220 Mt CO₂ per year by 2030. This is 3% of what is required per year. Therefore, the existing technologies need greater deployment, and as a society, we need to increase the range of carbon capture systems operating.

2.3 The Brilliant Planet System

The ocean is a sink for ~25% of the atmospheric CO₂ emitted by human activities, more than two petagrams of carbon per year (Watson et al., 2020). This absorption is predicted to slow after 2080 (Chikamoto & DiNezio, 2021) whilst remaining significant. Other factors, such as an alkalinity-climate feedback loop within the ocean, could amplify climate change in later centuries (Chikamoto, DiNezio, & Lovenduski, 2023). Based on this, the ocean is not only an option for CDR technologies; if done at the correct scale, this could impact feedback cycles.

The BPS takes nutrient-rich seawater from the Atlantic Ocean to feed a raceway system where Skeletonema pseudocostatum (a chain-forming diatom) is grown. The microalgae are then harvested, spray-dried, and buried. A three-hectare demonstrator for the technology, covering three hectares, is operational close to the town of Akhfennir, Morocco and has been operating in the field for more than five years. In terms of the stability of buried biomass, several as-yet unpublished experiments have shown the stability of the buried biomass, meaning that a >1,000-year residence time without significant degradation can be expected. A basic diagram of the BPS is provided in Figure 1.

A vital element of judging any carbon capture system is understanding the balance between the CO2 emissions through construction and operation and the CO2 the system captures. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) must be conducted to do this. This is a methodology to understand the full impacts within a set boundary condition. Typically, LCAs should all follow ISO 14040(International Organization for Standardization, 2006a) and 14044(International Organization for Standardization, 2006b). However, these standards allow for a wide range of freedom in terms of the methodological choices made, and thus this leads to many LCAs being incomparable. There have been attempts to create methodologies that tighten the ISO standards for particular products. The LCA4CCU document(European et al., 2022), written for the European Commission, is particularly relevant for this work. Older work on harmonising microalgae LCAs includes (Bradley, Maga, & Antón, 2015); however, this is outdated, and new harmonisations should be made.

The LCA followed the standard four ISO stages.

Goal and Scope – this is the methodology and within this paper's Methods part.
Life Cycle Inventory – this is the data, and hence within the supplementary materials of this paper, and should allow any independent researcher to replicate the results of this article.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment – the modelling of the system, utilising the LCI.
Interpretation – this is the results, discussion, and conclusion within this article.

After an initial analysis, it was shown electricity was a significant source of operational impacts; hence, various scenarios were run considering different energy sources. These same models showed nutrients as the second largest operational source of impact. Furthermore, this initial analysis showed two construction-related decarbonisation options, 1) replacing the HDPE within the intake pipe with a lower carbon material and 2) replacing the GFRP in the ponds. From this initial analysis, six scenarios were made; these are described in Table 1.

The three options for electricity are:

Moroccan electricity grid – based on an existing Ecoinvent 3.8 model.
Solar Farm – based on a model created using data from (Müller et al., 2021).
Wind Farm – based on existing Ecoinvent 3.8 models for Portugal.

The “a” scenarios represent the system without other changes beyond electricity, whereas the “b” scenarios represent improved nutrients, HDPE and GFRP.

Table 1: The six scenarios modelled for the Brilliant Planet system.

Electricity Source	Carbon saving measures
Electricity Source	No	Yes
Moroccan electricity grid	Scenario 1a	Scenario 1b
Solar Farm	Scenario 2a	Scenario 2b
Wind Farm	Scenario 3a	Scenario 3b

The data for these scenarios are within the Supplementary Materials, which should allow the reader to replicate these models using a methodology similar to that within the Methods section of this article.

The LCA includes the full environmental impacts; however, as climate change impacts are the main concern to understand if the BPS functions as a true CCS system, only the climate change impacts are included within the main body of this article. The results for all scenarios are presented in Table 2 to Table 5. As indicated in Table 2, the Moroccan electricity grid would lead to a system which is an overall carbon emitter. However, using renewable energy, the system becomes a significant carbon sink. Regarding the scenario with a wind farm and other carbon-saving measures, we have an impact (GWP100, AR5) of only 133 kgCO₂e per 1000 kgCO2.

Table 2: The six scenarios modelled for the Brilliant Planet system, with the climate change impacts (including infrastructure and operation) from 1000kg of CO₂ sequestration_.Impacts given in AR5 GWP100 kgCO₂ equivalent (kgCO₂e).

Electricity Source	Carbon saving measures
Electricity Source	No	Yes
Moroccan electricity grid	1,302 kgCO₂e	1,264 kgCO₂e
Solar Farm	183 kgCO₂e	145 kgCO₂e
Wind Farm	171 kgCO₂e	133 kgCO₂e

Table 3: kgCO₂e emitted per 1000 kg CO₂ sequestered, with a split of the phases, scenarios, and percentages with conditional formatting.

Phase		Scenario
Phase		1		2		3
#	Name	a	b	a	b	a	b
1	Cultivation (minus water intake)	22%	20%	78%	74%	83%	79%
1	Water intake	48%	50%	10%	12%	7%	8%
2	Harvesting	6%	6%	3%	4%	3%	4%
3	Sea water discharge	20%	21%	8%	9%	7%	8%
4	Drying	4%	4%	1%	1%	0%	1%
5	Burial	0%	0%	0%	0%	0%	0%
6	Ongoing storage	0%	0%	0%	0%	0%	0%

Table 4: Percentage split of impacts between construction and operation, with conditional formatting

Type	Scenario
	1		2		3
	a	b	a	b	a	b
Construction	7%	6%	47%	51%	50%	55%
Operation: Electricity	87%	90%	4%	4%	2%	3%
Operation: Nutrients	7%	4%	49%	46%	48%	41%

Table 5: Percentage split of impacts within the construction of Phase 1, cultivation.

Process	Percentage	Amount [kgCO₂e]
Intake Pipeline	39%	2.41×10⁶
Outdoor ponds	27%	1.68×10⁶
Concrete channels	13%	7.71×10⁵
Pumping station	12%	7.21×10⁵
Pipe network	6%	3.47×10⁵
Greenhouse ponds	2%	1.02×10⁵
Clean ponds	1%	8.84×10⁴
Lab	0%	1.80×10⁴
Tank pad	0%	1.58×10⁴
Total		6.16×10⁶

By moving to renewable energy, a major source of the impacts is removed, with wind power being the most appropriate for this region of Morocco. It must be remembered that this is under the assumption that renewable energy is built for the BPS and that the BPS is not simply taking low-carbon energy, which could be used elsewhere to ensure additionality.

With the electricity impacts reduced, we then have the impacts from construction and nutrients to address, with in Scenario 3b, nutrients responsible for 41% of impacts. In terms of nutrients, it is also important to note that there are global concerns regarding nutrients, specifically concepts such as peak phosphorus ("Approaching peak phosphorus," 2022). Therefore, this issue is being addressed from both an LCA and a food security angle, and further papers will be published on the solutions to the nutrient issues.

In terms of construction, the intake pipeline was shown to be an environmental hotspot for the system. This is due to the high volume of HDPE required. With the use of a pipeless intake system, the impacts incurred through the facility's construction could be further reduced.

The final area for improvement is the concrete and HDPE sources. It is clear within the LCA that concrete and HDPE are the highest impact factors when analysing the construction aspect of the facility. Green concrete sources are available; however, green concrete is often weaker than standard concrete. A significant reduction in facility lifetime would result in a reduction of CO₂ sequestration. Using building materials from those CDR organisations which employ carbonisation for building materials would also reduce this impact.

The work undertaken within this LCA shows that the Brilliant Planet System has the potential to be a carbon sink. It is important to reiterate that this is based on the data collected and the assumptions within that data. However, considering that Brilliant Planet could (using the correct electricity) emit as little as 133kg of CO₂e per 1000 kg sequestered, hence a carbon efficiency of 87%. This is comparable with the results from the LCA undertaken by Climeworks (Deutz & Bardow, 2021), which shows their system has an impact of 85.4% and 93.1%. It is important to note that the Climeworks system is powered by geothermal electricity, a very low-carbon source and that the LCA is a cradle-to-gate, not cradle-to-grave. If we look at enhanced weathering, (Lefebvre et al., 2019) showed for a system based in Sao Paulo, Brazil, a carbon efficiency of 89%. Considering the differences in methodologies for LCAs (outside of the more rigid EPD and PEF approaches) and uncertainties within background data, the differences between the systems are insignificant. The most important message from this is that those systems with published LCAs all show a strong carbon efficiency; however, none of these, including BPS, could be deployed globally alone; they are all dependent on local factors. Climeworks requires basalt caves to store the CO₂, enhanced weather requires a source of basalt, and BPS requires a coastal area with good microalgae growing conditions, specifically, high irradiance levels. Hence, all of the above are part of a single multifaceted solution to climate change.

This LCA’s most crucial part is providing a path for further carbon reductions. The work within this project has aligned with the considerations of the Brilliant Planet team, and there are no significant surprises.

Areas to consider are:

Ensure that the electricity source truly is low carbon.
Find low-carbon suppliers for nutrients.
Replace the intake pipeline system.
Find sustainable solutions for replacing and reducing the use of materials with high emissions (concrete, HDPE).

All these essential elements are currently under investigation from discussions with Brilliant Planet.

Returning to the required target of 665 Gt of CO₂ sequestered between 2023 and 2100, the BPS can significantly contribute to this. If we take the 9.9t daily absorption of CO₂ from the 30-hectare site, assuming 325 days of operation per year (hence 107t/year/ha), this will scale to requiring 80,525,535 hectares. Whilst this would need to be spread globally, to put it in perspective, this is 9% of the land area of the Sahara. As described above, we would expect a range of technologies to be deployed globally, each in the most appropriate location. However, from this work and the functioning demonstrator in Akhfennir, it is clear that the BPS could make a major contrition to the required carbon removal necessary to avoid a 1.5°C world.

This article followed an ISO 14040/14044 compliant LCA methodology.

The model was for a 30-hectare site, based on data collected from the existing 3-hectare site, literature data, calculations from Brilliant Planet, and the Ecoinvent database. We have presented all data within the Supplementary materials to be completely transparent and enable others to construct LCA models with the same results.

In line with the ISO standard, the ISO 14040 Goal and Scope is within the Methods.

4.1 Goal

4.1.1 The intended application

An LCA of the Brilliant Planet carbon capture system utilises algae raceway pond technology to sequester carbon dioxide.

4.1.2 Reason to carry out the study

To understand the environmental impacts of the Brilliant Planet Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) system and improve the overall performance of the system.
To inform decisions for the proposed 1000-hectare site.
To provide a robust report to verify that the system is a true carbon capture system.

4.1.3 The intended audience

Brilliant Planet
Scientific community
Politicians
Investors

4.1.4 If the results are intended to be disclosed to the public

The results will be disclosed to the public in a scientific paper

4.2 Scope

4.2.1 The product system to be studied;

Construction of the carbon capture production facility
Operation of the facility across its lifetime

4.2.2 Functions of the product systems

The sequestration of carbon dioxide from the ocean utilising algae raceway pond technology

4.2.3 Functional unit

The sequestration of 1000kg of CO₂from the atmosphere for a minimum of 500 years

4.2.4 System boundary

Cradle to grave

4.2.5 Allocation procedures

Where appropriate, system expansion will be used. There is no expected co-product.

4.2.6 Impact categories selected and methodology of impact assessment, and subsequent interpretation to be used

ReCiPe 2016 Mid Points

Ionising radiation (kBq Co-60 eq)
Mineral resource scarcity (kg Cu eq)
Freshwater eutrophication (kg P eq)
Marine ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB)
Land use (m2a crop eq)
Ozone formation, Terrestrial ecosystems (kg NOx eq)
Human non-carcinogenic toxicity (kg 1,4-DCB)
Freshwater ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB)
Marine eutrophication (kg N eq)
Water consumption (m3)
Global warming (kg CO₂ eq)
Fossil resource scarcity (kg oil eq)
Fine particulate matter formation (kg PM2.5 eq)
Stratospheric ozone depletion (kg CFC11 eq)
Terrestrial ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB)
Human carcinogenic toxicity (kg 1,4-DCB)
Ozone formation, Human health (kg NOx eq)
Terrestrial acidification (kg SO2 eq)

Whilst AR6 impacts should be considered, these are currently not available with LCA software, and this is something to be rectified by the authors.

4.2.7 Interpretation to include

Pedigree Matrix uncertainties

4.2.8 Software and databases

Models to be created within OpenLCA 1.11.0
Background database: Ecoinvent 3.7 (Cut off by classification)

4.2.9 Data requirements

Primary data used where possible from Brilliant Planet
Secondary data no older than five years

4.2.10 Assumptions

Proxies from Ecoinvent are to be used where exact processes cannot be sourced
The carbon content of biomass is assumed to be 1.61kg of carbon per kg of biomass
The facility is operational 325 days a year
The productivity of the system is 6.14 tonnes per day
Degradation for the solar cells is 0.05% per annum

4.2.11 Limitations

Construction figures were assumed as estimations.
The green HDPE model is an adapted version of the standard HDPE model, so it will share any underlying flaws
Ecoinvent’s wind farm model data is old and potentially outdated

4.2.12 Initial data quality requirements

Pedigree matrices to be used to account for qualitative assessment of data.

4.2.13 Type of critical review, if any

Internal review within Decerna
Peer review by journal reviewers

4.2.14 Type and format of the report required for the study.

Technical report for Brilliant Planet

4.2.15 Uncertainty

Pedigree Matrix based approach (Funtowicz, 1990),.

4.2.16 Assumptions

The core assumption within this work is that the productivities reported by Brilliant Planet are correct. The assumptions behind the individual elements of the model are detailed in Table 8 to Table 45.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its Supplementary Information file.

Code availability

The OpenLCA model for the analyses can be provided following reasonable requests, subject to the requester already having the Ecoinvent 3.8 licence for OpenLCA.

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Yes there is potential Competing Interest. Decerna is a completely independent organisation, hence we have no competing interests.

We have listed Guy Ingram-Hardwick as an author, who works for Brilliant Planet, the company which we studied. However, Guy provided a large amount of data, and facilitated our site visits, hence we felt his contributions meant he should be an author.

Supplementarymaterials.docx

The potential of microalgae for large-scale carbon capture and storage: A Life Cycle Assessment based on real-world data

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Abstract

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