Walk or be walked by the dog? The attachment role

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3169925/v1

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Research Article

Walk or be walked by the dog? The attachment role

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3169925/v1

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Journal Publication

published 04 Mar, 2024

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Background

The human-animal bond has been recognized as having positive effects on the health and well-being of both humans and pets. The present study aims to explore the influence of attachment on physical activity (PA), lifestyle, and health outcomes of dog owners (DO), highlighting the mutual benefits resulting from the relationship between DO and dogs.

Methods

Thirty-eight DO and their dogs participated in this study. Socio-demographic data, the Subjective Perceptive Health Scale (SPHS), FANTASTIC lifestyle, and the Lexington Attachment Pet Scale (LAPS) were assessed. PA was measured in both the DO and the dogs, using an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer in the context of daily routine. Descriptive statistics and Spearman rank correlation analyses were performed to examine the associations between LAPS, PA levels, variables socio-demographic, lifestyle behaviors, and SPHS.

Results

Significant correlations were found between the DO’s light-level PA and the pets' vigorous level of PA (rho = 0.45). Furthermore, the importance of the pets' health and the LAPS subscales, namely proximity and attachment, were related to taking the pet for a walk. Concerning lifestyle, DO with a healthier lifestyle have a better self-assessment of their health using the SHPS (rho = 0.39, p = 0.02). Moreover, DO with better lifestyles have also exhibited greater concern for their pet's health and had higher levels of PA.

Conclusions

This study underlines that individuals adopting healthier habits tend to perceive themselves as healthier and exhibit greater concern for their pets' health. The attachment between DO and dogs is important to promote healthy lifestyle behaviors and PA engagement. Our results highlight that the presence of a dog is associated with a higher level of DO’s PA, depending on the strength of the human-animal bond.

Accelerometry

Companion animal

Dogs

Health

Lifestyle

Pet ownership

Physical activity

The comprehensive implementation of health prevention and health promotion policies, the raising awareness of modifiable risk factors, and the promotion of healthy lifestyles represent an ever-evolving challenge for today's society (1, 2).

Lifestyle plays a crucial role in public health, as individual behaviors and habits have a significant impact on the development of chronic non-communicable diseases (1, 3). Adopting a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular physical activity (PA), tobacco abstention, moderate alcohol consumption, and restful sleep, can help to prevent and control these diseases, reducing the burden on health systems and improving the quality of life of the population (4, 5).

Exercise levels in the global population are a public health concern and are considered one of the greatest challenges for the future (1). An analysis conducted in 2018 found that 27.5% of adults worldwide were insufficiently active (6). The latest Eurobarometer data indicate that 73% of Portuguese people report that they never exercise or engage in PA (7). Several strategies have been implemented to increase the level of PA and reduce sedentary behavior, such as the inclusion of pet during the PA (8).

In 2010, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association requested the One Health Agenda to consider the effects of pets on humans (9). In a One Health approach, the human-animal bond gains a prominent role. The concept of the human-animal bond refers to the positive effects resulting from the dynamic established between owner and the pet, where each one influences the psychological, physical, and physiological state of the other (10). Several benefits associated with PA have been described for both owners and their pets (11–14). Pets are present in almost half (54%) of Portuguese households (15). The recruitment of pets, specifically dogs, as a source of encouragement and motivation for PA has received increasing scientific attention (13, 16–20). And has been proposed as a strategy for promotion the of PA in the population (16).

Several studies have reported that dog owners (DO) engage in more total walking compared to non-dog owners (8, 17, 21, 22). In a meta-analysis conducted by Martins et al. (2023), pet ownership was found to have a moderately significant positive effect on PA of pet owners compared to non-pet owners (23).

However, while increasing evidence indicates that dog ownership influences increased PA, other studies find that many owners do not take their dogs for walks. This inconsistency found between these studies may rely on methodological issues such as the use of self-reported instruments, which may be susceptible to bias (17, 20, 23, 27).

With the growing development of technological innovations, numerous user-friendly devices provide the opportunity to assess PA levels (28). Accelerometers have been used to quantify PA and estimate energy expenditure in both owners and pets (29–32). Furthermore, the use of accelerometers has been validated as an objective and representative measure of spontaneous activity in humans and dogs (31, 33–37).

Potential benefits of accelerometry data, when compared to traditional pet activity monitoring, include excellent owner and dog compliance, as well as the ability to obtain objective and unbiased data from owner and researcher observations (35). Additionally, accelerometry allows for the most realistic possible monitoring of daily PA (29). Although PA monitoring in dogs is often performed in controlled environments (38), assessing PA in daily-life contexts enables closer monitoring of real-life situations, as the types of activities that dogs engage in likely vary substantially between households (39).

Martins et al. (2023) have pointed out several variables that can influencing the benefits of having a pet for health (23). One of the proposed mechanisms could be the level of attachment to a pet (40). Over the decades, it has been hypothesized that pets, especially dogs, provide a unique bond that serves as an important mediator in the relationship between pet ownership and human health (41, 42). Furthermore, it is recognized that most DOs believe that walking their dogs regularly is beneficial for the human-animal relationship and for the dog’s health (43). Walking a dog helps individuals experience less negative emotions and promotes emotional stability through social and emotional support (44). This human-animal relationship may resemble the role that human social support plays in facilitating the initiation and maintenance of PA.

This study was conducted in the daily life context of DO and their dogs to explore the unique relationships between both influences. The purpose was to verify whether the attachment relationship between the DO and the dog influences the PA levels of both and additionally to verify the relationship between the previous variables, demographic data, lifestyle and self-perception od the DO’s health and the dog’s health care.

Ethics Statement

This study received approval from the UTAD ethics committee of the project "One health approach in animal cancer Norte-01-0145-FEDER-000078” Ref. : Doc55-CE-UTAD-2021, and adhered to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all DO who participated in the study.

Participants

Thirty-eight adult Portuguese DO (25 women and 13 men) with a mean age of 43.1 ± 16.6 years and 38 dogs (27 female and 11 males) with a mean age of 7.7 ± 5.9 participated in this study. The sample was obtained through convenience sampling, using a combination of the snowball method, reaching out to individuals though social networks, and approaching DO while walking in public streets or parks. Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Inclusion criteria were owning a dog as a pet, and both the DO and dogs residing in the same household. Exclusion criteria considered non-compliance with the intervention procedures, such as not using the accelerometer for five consecutive days for both the DO and the dog, as well as not completing the questionnaires. Additionally, DO who had no daily contact with their dog or left the dog unsupervised were excluded for reasons of equipment protection.

The initial sample for this study comprised 148 adults. However, only 60 participants proceeded with the intervention. Following the intervention, 22 participants were excluded from the study due to incomplete accelerometer procedures (Fig. 1).

Measures

Socio-Demographic and Health Information

Socio-demographic features of the DO participants, including age, sex, and number of household members, were collected through a self-reported demographic questionnaire. DO’s body mass index (BMI) was calculated, and BMI z-scores were determined using reference data provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) (45). Participants' Subjective Health Perception Scale (SHPS) was assessed using two items to measure general health: "How is your current health status?" and "How do you rate your health compared to others your age?" both with response options ranging from 1 (Very poor) to 5 (Excellent) (46).

The socio-demographic characteristics of the canine participants, including age, sex, time of adoption, and dog care practices (such as deworming, starvation, and vaccination), were collected and additionally, DO were asked about the importance of their dog’s health, with response options ranging from 1 (Not important at all) to 5 (Very important). PA measures were registered based on self-report measures, including the frequency (number of times going out) and duration of walks (with response options "Do not walk the dog", "Less than 15 minutes", "Between 16 and 30 minutes" or "More than 30 minutes"), as well as the amount of time spent alone. The body condition index of the dogs was assessed using a semi-quantitative subjective method that considers visual (from the top and the side) and palpable characteristics (such as ribcage, dorsal spinous processes, and waist) to estimate the degree of obesity (47–49). The Body Condition Score (BCS) is typically rated on a scale from 1 to 9, with 1 indicating very thin and 9 indicating very obese (48, 50). The ideal body condition index for a dog is typically between 4 and 5, which means that the dog should have a visible waist when viewed from above, ribs that can be felt but not seen, and a slightly rounded abdomen (48, 49).

Physical Activity

PA levels for both the DO and dogs were objectively measured in their home/routine environments using an ActiGraph wGT3X-Link accelerometer (51). The ActiGraph accelerometer is a small, lightweight device that senses motion and records information on the intensity, frequency, and duration of movement, as well as sedentary time (51).

In this study, the ActiGraphs were set to a sampling rate of 30 Herts (51) and placed on the non-dominant wrist of the DO. Despite being used 24hours daily, the presented data will reflect on daytime wear period, from 6:00 AM to 11:00PM (52). After data collection, they were downloaded, processed, and analyzed using ActiLife v6.13.4 software (ActiGraph Inc., Pensacola, FL, USA). Mean values for each intensity of PA were calculated for free-living adults using the cut-points proposed by Montoye et al. (31): sedentary (< 2.860 counts/min), light PA (LPA) (2.860–3.940 counts/min), and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) (≥ 3.941 counts/min).

For canine protocol, an accelerometer was attached to each dog's harness or ventrally on the collar, following the methodology used in other studies (29, 32, 35). The accelerometers were set to record activity in 15-second intervals (epochs). In addition, the results of Westgarth and Ladha (53) provides strong evidence that the ventral collar and dorsal harness sites can be used interchangeably, as low variability was observed between the two locations. This finding is important as it allows for broader inclusion criteria in future studies, accommodating dogs that may not be well suited for wearing an instrumented collar, while still ensuring high levels of welfare and maintaining measurement validity (53).

The dog's ActiGraph data were downloaded using the Low-Frequency Extension option (38) an then screened for wear time using the graphing function of ActiLife v6.13.3 software. Cut-points were set at different intensity levels: sedentary (< 1351 counts/min), moderate PA (MPA) (1352–5695 counts/min), and vigorous PA (VPA) (> 5696 counts /min) (12, 32).

All study participants were required to record the use and accelerometer removal times in a PA diary, for themselves and their pets. To ensure data validity, the ActiGraph data needed to have 10 or more hours of wear time per day for at least 5 days. The total amount of LPA, MPA, VPA, and MVPA, as well as the number of steps, recorded during the week, were divided by the number of valid wear days for each participant to calculate daily means. Additionally, adherence to the WHO's PA recommendations (54) was defined as people meaning 150 to 300 minutes of MVPA per week on average.

Lifestyle

The FANTASTIC questionnaire (55) was used to assess lifestyle. The adapted and validated Portuguese version consists of 30 questions divided into 10 items that cover various aspects of lifestyle, including Family and Friends, Associativism/Physical Activity, Nutrition, Tobacco, Alcohol and other drugs, Sleep/Stress, Type Personality/Work, Introspection, Health and Sexual Behaviors, and Other Behaviors. The questions were designed to be answered on a Likert response scale with numeric values of 0, 1, or 2 (56). The raw score obtained from the questionnaire was transformed into a scale ranging from 0 to 120 points, stratifying behavior into different categories. Scores from 0 to 46 indicate a need for improvement, scores from 47 to 72 suggest a fair lifestyle, scores from 73 to 84 represent a good lifestyle, scores from 85 to 102 indicate a very good lifestyle, and scores from 103 to 120 reflect an excellent lifestyle. A lower score suggests a greater need for behavior change. The interpretation of the results is as follows: "Excellent" means that the lifestyle will significantly influence health; "Very good" suggests that the lifestyle will have an adequate influence on health; "Good" indicates that the lifestyle will bring numerous health benefits; "Fair" implies that the lifestyle provides some health benefits, but also presents certain risks; and "Needs improvement" indicates that the lifestyle has several risk factors (56).

Attachment

The Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) was developed by Johnson et al. in 1992, using Social Support Theory as the underlying theoretical framework (57). The scale was designed to capture the affective aspect of the pet's supportive role in the owner's life, as this aspect is considered to have a strong impact on human well-being and psychophysical health (58, 59). The Portuguese version considers of 23 items, each rated on a scale of 1 to 5, ranging from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree." The scale comprises three subscales: Proximity, Importance, and Bond, which collectively provide a comprehensive measure of attachment to pets (60). The overall level of attachment is assessed by the sum of the values obtained on each item.

Statistical Analyses

SPSS Statistics 27.0 software (IBM., Inc., Chicago, Ill., USA) was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics (frequency and percentages for categorical variables, mean and standard deviation for continuous variables) were applied for socio-demographic, health-related characteristics, and accelerometer-measured PA in dogs and DO. To evaluate the relationship between the variables described above, Spearman rank correlation was used. Results were considered statistically significant when p ≤ 0.05.

Participants of study

A total of 38 Portuguese adults (43 ± 16.57 years of age, ranging from 18 to 74 years), participated in the study and a data description is presented in Table 1. None of the DO revealed any chronic illness that inhibited the practice of PA and the majority (60.5%) presented a normal BMI. Regarding educational level and occupation, 60,5% has higher education and 70,1% work in the tertiary sector. Among participants, 4 reported living alone, 7 with their partners and 27 state living with three or more people.

On average, a very good lifestyle (90.84 ± 2.15) was assumed by DO, and the subjective health perception was either "Excellent" or "Good" for the majority (97.4%). Concerning attachment to their dogs, they also report a good attachment (94.82 ± 10.88).

Table 1

Baseline characteristics of dog owner (DO) participating in the study.
Variables		DO (n = 38)
BMI (kg.m^− 2)	Normal weight	23 (60.5%)
	Pre-obesity	10 (26.3%)
	Obesity	5 (13.5%)
Marital status	Single	18 (47.4%)
	Married / Living together	17 (44.7%)
	Divorced	3 (7.9%)
Education level	2nd cycle - until 6th grade	2 (5.3%)
	3rd cycle - until 9th grade	5 (13.2%)
	Secondary - up to 12th grade	8 (21.1%)
	Higher Education	23 (60.5%)
Occupation/ Employment	Student	6 (15.8%)
	Retired	2 (5.3%)
	Secondary sector	3 (7.9%)
	Tertiary sector	27 (71.1%)
FANTASTICO	F -Family and Friends	7.05 (± 0.24)
	A –Associativism/Physical Activity	7.95 (± 0.45)
	N -Nutrition	7.52 (± 0.34)
	T -Tobacco	6.73 (± 0.36)
	A -Alcohol and other drugs	21.37 (± 0.52)
	S -Sleep/Stress	9.11 (± 0.40)
	T -Type Personality/Work	7.16 (± 0.39)
	I -Introspection	7.63 (± 0.49)
	C -Health and Sexual Behaviors	9.31 (± 0.30)
	O -Other Behaviors	7.00 (± 0.26)
	Total Scale	90.84 (± 2.15)
LAPS	Proximity	25.74 (± 4.86)
	Importance	20.21 (± 3.59)
	Bond	48.87 (± 3.81)
	Total Scale	94.82 (± 10.88)
SHPS Q1 “Current health”	Average Good	1 (2.6%) 25 (65.8%)
	Excellent	12 (31.6%)
Q2: “Health compared to others”	Average Good Excellent	1 (2.6%) 25 (65.8%) 12 (31.6%)
Data are reported as number (%), mean (± standard deviation)

The 38 dogs under study presented a wide age range, with 13.2% we are 2 or less than 2 years old, 65.8% were between 3 and 8 years old, and 21.1% is nine or more years old. Regarding breed, 30 dogs were of no defined breed, while the remaining 8 dogs represented various specific breeds: 2 Jack Russell Terriers, 1 Afghan Hound, 1 Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, 1 Yorkshire Terrier, 1 Schnauzer, and 2 Miniature Pinschers. These breeds were further categorized into 13 small dogs, 19 medium dogs, and 6 large dogs. It is important to note that none of the dogs included in the study had any chronic diseases that would inhibit their participation in PA.

Based on BCS, 23.7% of the dogs were classified as underweight, 55.3% as overweight, and 21.1% as having an optimal weight. In terms of feeding frequency, 10.5% of DO feed their dogs once a day, 47.4% fed them twice a day, 21.1% fed them three times a day, and 21.1% kept food always available for their dogs. Additionally, 76.3% of DO had neutered their dogs, and 86.8% ensured their dogs were up-to-date with vaccinations. All DO reports performing internal and external parasite deworming for their dogs. The length of time since the dogs were adopted ranged from 1 to 18 years, with a mean of 5.58 ± 3.4 years. When asked about the importance of their pet's health, all DO indicate that it was either 'Important' or 'Very important'. The self-reported measures of PA for the dog participants are provided in Table 2.

Table 2

Self-reported pet ownership information of the participants.
Variables		Dog (n = 38)
Time dogs spend alone (h/day)	Less than 3 hours Between 3 and 6 hours	18.4% 55.3%
	Between 6 and 12 hours	26.3%
Owns a garden that the dog has access	Yes No	12 (31.6%) 26 (6.4%)
Walking the dog	Yes	35 (92.1%)
	No	3 (7.9%)
Frequency (nº/day)	Never 1 time	2.6% 5.3%
	2 times	23.7%
	3 times	31.6%
	4 times	7.9%
	More than 5 times	28.9%
Duration walking (min/day)	Does not walk the pet Less than 15 minutes	2.6% 15.8%
	Between 16 and 30 minutes	71.1%
	More than 30 minutes	10.5%
Data are reported as numbers (%)

When analyzing the report from the PA assessment with triaxial accelerometer, results show that DO engage in LPA for an average of 89.83 ± 53.93 minutes/day and MVPA for 246,71 ± 94,28 minutes/day.

Concerning dog’s PA levels, outcome results from accelerometry show they engaged in MPA for 86.34 ± 59.54 minutes/day and had brief periods of VPA (3.14 ± 2.91 minutes/day). Additional information and data, may also been consulted in Table 3.

Table 3

Physical activity measures for dog owner (DO) and dog.
Accelerometer variables	DO (n = 38)¹	Dog (n = 38)²
METs (kcal/kg/h)	1.83 (± 0.35)	1.05 (± 0.04)
Total sedentary time (min/day)	1005.71 (± 101.03)	1233.95 (± 87.01)
Total steps (counts/day)	12469 (± 3708)	9128 (± 4015)
MVPA (min/day)	246.71 (± 94.28)	89.49 (± 61.47)
Data are reported as mean (± sd). ¹ Calculate by cut points Montoye et al., 2020. ² Calculate by cut points Yam et al., 2011.

Considering the physical activity measurements of the DOs and their dogs throughout each minute of a 24-hour day, Fig. 2 provides an example showing potential trends of both simultaneous PA.

24-hour day for a dog owner (DO) and respective dog during the same period (an example).

Associations between variables of the study

Several associations between DO characteristics and dog-related factors have been found. To categorize the dogs, they were grouped according to their size and our results indicate that larger dogs are associated with higher levels of MPVA of the DO.

Younger DO was found to have dogs with lower weights, indicating a negative correlation between DO age and dog weight (rho= -0.53, p = 0.01). DO with higher levels of education expressed a higher level of importance regarding their dog's health (rho = 0.385, p = 0.02) and their dogs had a higher number of metabolic equivalents (MET) (rho = 0.42, p = 0.01), compared to DO with lower educational backgrounds.

The DO's profession also emerged as a significant factor in the dog's PA. It was positively correlated with MPA (rho = 0.37, p = 0.02), MVPA (rho = 0.364, p = 0.02), number of steps taken by the dog (rho = 0.33, p = 0.04), caloric expenditure (rho = 0.39, p = 0.02), and number of METs (rho = 0.445, p = 0.01). On the other hand, the size of the household was found to have a negative relationship with the duration of dog walks (rho= -0.42, p = 0.01), indicating that households with more members tend to have shorter dog walks.

Regarding the SHPS, younger DO had higher SHPS scores (rho = 0.328, p = 0.04). Younger DO also recorded a higher number of daily steps (rho = 0.417, p = 0.01) and had lower BMI levels (rho= -0.37, p = 0.02). In terms of the dog, DO who rated their dog's health as more important showed significantly more concern about the dog's weight (rho = 0.39, p = 0.02) and caloric expenditure (rho = 0.32, p = 0.05). This indicates that DO who perceive their dog's health positively tend to be more attentive to their dog's weight management and energy expenditure.

The findings suggest that there is a positive association between the DO's engagement in LPA and the dog's engagement in VPA (rho = 0.44, p = 0.01), and the METs expended by the dog daily (rho = 0.35, p = 0.03). Furthermore, the dog's sedentary activity time is reduced when DO take them for walks outside (rho = 0.52, p = 0.00) and when they go for walks more frequently (rho=-0.41, p = 0.01). Also, the importance of the dog's health in the DO's life was found to be positively associated with taking the pet for walks outside (rho = 0.46, p = 0.01) and shorter walk durations (rho=-0.32, p = 0.05), as reported by the DO.

The results indicate there is a negative correlation between the dog's engagement in MPA (rho=-0.329, p = 0.04), MVPA (rho=-0.33, p = 0.04), and the number of steps taken (rho=-0.33, p = 0.04), and the dog's BMI. Additionally, a higher BMI in dogs is associated with less frequent outdoor activities (rho=-0.56, p = 0.00), indicating that dogs with a higher BMI may engage in fewer outdoor activities or walks. Furthermore, the dog's weight is positively associated with the time spent alone at home (rho = 0.34, p = 0.04). Furthermore, the length of adoption time is negatively correlated with the dog's engagement in MVPA (rho=-0.380, p = 0.02).

Concerning lifestyle, the results indicate that DO with a healthier lifestyle, as assessed by the FANTASTICO, have a better self-assessment of their health using the SHPS (rho = 0.39, p = 0.02). DO also evaluate their health compared to others more positively (rho = 0.44, p = 0.01). Moreover, DO with better lifestyles also exhibit greater concern for their pet's health (rho = 0.439, p = 0.01). For more detailed information on the correlations between the FANTASTICO subscales and variables related to PA in pets, please refer to Table 4.

Table 4

The association between physical activity (PA) of dogs and the FANTASTICO lifestyle subscales.
Variables		F	A	N	T	A	S	I	C	O
Self-report measures	Importance of pet health	0.39*			0.32*				0.46*	0.67*
	Walking the dog						0.36*
	Duration of your pet's walk (min/day)		0.35*		0.42**
	Frequency of pet's walk (nº/day)			0.38*		0.38*
	Time dogs spend alone (h/day)				0.39*
Accelerometer measures	METs (kcal/kg/h)						0.32*
	MVPA (min/day)						0.39*
	MPA (min/day)						0.39*	0.33*
	VPA (min/day)						0.39*
	Steps (Counts/day)			-0.33*		-0.36*	0.36*	0.33*
Correlation by Sperman, p < 0.05. F - Family and Friends; A - Associativism/physical Activity; N - Nutrition, T- Tobacco, A- Alcohol and other drugs; S - Sleep/Stress; T - Type Personality/Work; I - Introspection; C - Health and Sexual Behaviors; and O - Other Behaviors.

The PA in the associativism/physical activity subscale demonstrated a good association with the objectively measured levels of PA performed by the DO, having an association with the DO’s Step counts (rho = 0.51, p = 0.00), the MVPA (rho = 0.38, p = 0.02) and with a shorter sedentary time (rho=-0.34, p = 0.03).

DO who considered their nutrition habits more positive (FANTASTICO) are those with lower weight (rho=-0.41, p = 0.01), lower BMI (rho=-0.36, p = 0.03), and lower level of LPA (rho=-0.39, p = 0.02). DO who scored higher in the type personality/work subscale and other behaviors subscale had dogs with better BMI values (rho= -0.34, p = 0.04, rho= -0.32, p = 0.05, respectively). The subscale related to the family in the Family and Friends subscale showed an association with the dog's age (rho= -0.48, p = 0.00). Similarly, the Introspection age subscale was also associated with the dog's age (rho= -0.42, p = 0.01).

A positive association between smoking habits and longer periods of pets staying home alone was found (rho = 0.39, p = 0.02) and with longer pet adoption durations (rho = 0.54, p = 0.00). In addition, DO with less smoking habits have higher levels of daily steps (rho = 0.35, p = 0.03).

Regarding the attachment role, the results indicate that women showed significantly more proximity to their dogs compared to men (rho = 0.44, p = 0.01). Additionally, DO who reported taking their pets for walks more frequently (rho = 0.36, p = 0.03) and those who had higher levels of PA (FANTASTICO) (rho= -0.43, p = 0.01), exhibited greater proximity to their dogs.

On the other hand, DO who scored higher levels of importance with their pets and had higher levels of PA (FANTASTICO) (rho= -0.41, p = 0.01) reported lower frequency of taking their pets for walks (rho= -0.78, p = 0.02). However, it is worth noting that the majority of the sample (68.4%) reported taking their dogs for walks more than three times.

Regarding the bond established with the dogs, higher levels of the bond were associated with better SHPS of the DO (rho = 0.33, p = 0.04), more frequent walks outside (rho = 0.34, p = 0.04), and DO with lower consumption habits of alcoholic beverages or other drugs in the alcohol and other drugs subscale had a greater bond with the dog (rho = 0.37, p = 0.02).

Overall, DO who were more attached to their dogs tended to take them for walks more frequently (rho = 0.39, p = 0.01), exhibited higher levels of PA (FANTASTICO) (rho= -0.37, p = 0.02), and had better nutrition (FANTASTICO) (rho = 0.35, p = 0.03).

The present study sought to investigate whether the attachment between DO and their dog(s) influenced total physical activity (PA), as measured by accelerometry. Additionally, we examined the relationship between the socio-demographic variables, lifestyle factors, and the SHPS of the DO and the health care of their dogs.

This study was conducted in a real-life context, which provides a unique approach to capturing the actual levels of PA between DO and dogs. Additionally, it adopts a One Health approach, considering the benefits for both DO and dogs. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in Portugal to provide an objective assessment of PA in both dogs and DO, simultaneously. Furthermore, it includes a comprehensive analysis of various measures (sociodemographic and health-related) that exhibit different associations among the variables studied. Additionally, an analysis of the human-animal bond was conducted, yielding valuable insights into its influence on the levels of PA for both DO and dogs. Our findings provide insights into the influence of DO’s socio-demographic characteristics on their dogs. The results revealed that the majority of DO have a healthy profile, characterized by normal BMI, good health perception, and a very good lifestyle. It is worth noting the high educational level of the sample, which likely contributed to the development and adoption of healthy behaviors, as reported in other studies (61, 62). Interestingly, our results provide evidence that this profile of health-conscious DO is associated with the health care of their dogs. Specifically, factors such as DO’s age, education, and occupation were identified as factors associated with control over their dog's weight. DO working in the tertiary sector was associated with higher levels of PA for their dogs. Furthermore, a correlation was observed between higher levels of DO education and employment, which were linked to concerns about their dogs' caloric expenditure and levels of PA. This association aligns with the findings of Silva et al. (63) and can be attributed to increased knowledge and awareness of pet health, which is necessary for a more responsible approach to pet adoption (64).

When examining the various parameters of the lifestyle scale, it is noticeable that DO who reported greater family support, less smoking, heightened awareness of their own health and sexual behaviors, or engaged in other positive behaviors, tended to place greater importance on their dog’s health. Moreover, these DO were found to have dogs with lower BMI. These associations emphasize the interconnectedness between human and dog well-being. Adopting healthy habits allows DO to positively influence their dogs' health and well-being, reinforcing the notion of a symbiotic relationship between human and pet health. Conversely, this study confirmed previous findings that DO with negative health habits, such as smoking, show less concern for their dog's well-being and engage in less PA with their dogs (65).

Additionally, our study found that DO from larger households tended to engage in more outdoor walks with their dogs, although the duration of these walks was typically shorter. This can be attributed to the fact that in larger households, multiple family members may share the responsibility of walking the dog, resulting in shorter walks that are more manageable for the entire family. Furthermore, the presence of children or elderly family members in larger households may limit the ability to participate in longer walks, thereby influencing the duration of the walks undertaken. The canine sample in our study consisted of a wide range of ages, reflecting a diverse representation of dogs across different life stages. Interestingly, we found a negative association between the importance of family and friends on the FANTASTICO scale and the dogs' age. This sub-scale includes items related to having someone to talk to about the DO’s problems and feeling emotionally supported. For DO who do not have other family members or friends to confide in, their animal companion often serves as a source of companionship and emotional support. Moreover, it is expected that the role of a pet as a confidant increases as the years pass. Therefore, our results suggest that owners that have friends and family members to talk about their lives, do not share their problems with their pets. On the other hand, those that have difficulty sharing their problems and concerns use their old friend (dog) as a confidant.

Regarding dog breeds, a substantial portion of the sample in our study consisted of crossbreeds. While many studies tend to focus on dogs of specific breeds (66, 67), which can be valuable for analysis purposes, it may not fully capture the diversity of dogs that constitute a significant portion of adopted dogs by Portuguese families. Additionally, our results indicate that larger dog breeds were associated with higher levels of MPVA by the DO.

Larger dogs enable a higher walking or running speed compared to very small ones, which can contribute to increased levels of PA during dog walks. However, it is important to note that the behavioral characteristics of the dog, such as aggression although not considered in the present study, could also influence walking routines with the dog. An aggressive dog, for example, could reduce the number and extension of walking (20).

This issue is based on BCS (48–50), our findings revealed that 55.3% of the dogs were overweight. Similar to humans, obesity in dogs is associated with lower levels of PA (11), which aligns with our findings of a significant association between higher BCS in dogs and fewer outdoor walks. Additionally, dogs with higher body weights were associated with those that spend more time alone at home. Numerous studies have reported a concerning increase in the prevalence of overweight and obese dogs globally, which has detrimental consequences for their health, lifespan, and quality of life (50, 68–70). Furthermore, there is evidence of an association between human obesity and canine obesity, indicating shared environmental and lifestyle factors contributing to both conditions (71).

On the other hand, research has demonstrated that DO who engage in regular walking with their dogs are less likely to be obese compared to both non-dog owners and DO who do not walk with their dogs (72). This reinforces the notion that the choices and lifestyle practices of DO, including their exercise habits for their pets, play a significant role in determining the body weight and overall health of dogs (68, 73).

Additionally, it was observed that DO who placed greater importance on their pet's health were more likely to engage in regular walks with their pets (43). This suggests that DO recognize the health benefits associated with exercise and seek to extend them to their dogs. Furthermore, our findings indicate that DO who reported better sleep quality tend to participate in longer walks with their dogs, which is associated with increased moderate-to-vigorous MVPA and higher step counts in them.

In terms of measuring PA levels using accelerometry, one of the criteria for this study was to assess the PA of both DO and dogs in their daily routine. This approach was chosen as it provides a more realistic representation of the pets' activity levels integrated within each family system, taking into account that a dog’s PA can vary from day to day and may be influenced by the activities of their DO (74). Unlike a laboratory environment, the daily routine of dogs remains consistent regardless of the day of the week, offering a more authentic measure of their activity. However, one limitation of this approach is that these activities are more variable and uncontrolled, which can result in higher variability in the activity counts.

This study revealed that a high percentage of DO were found to comply with WHO recommendations for MVPA (54). This indicates that the majority of DO engage in an mean of 150 to 300 minutes per week of MVPA, which is considered beneficial for health. However, while DO individually meet the MVPA recommendations, the association with dogs' PA was only found between DO’s LPA and dog’s MVPA. This suggests that DO typically walk with their dogs but do not engage in running activities, which is consistent with previous studies (75–78). On the other hand, a study by Richards et al. (79) found that young adult DO spend the majority of their time walking their dogs at moderate-to-vigorous intensity levels, which may suggest that the DO’s walking pattern could depend on the DO’s age.

Our results, despite being based on a small sample, are significant in promoting PA through dog walking (80). In Portugal, where approximately 38% of households own a dog (15, 81), dog walking can contribute to achieving sufficient levels of LPA among DO, thereby potentially obtaining health benefits (54). DO tend to engage in light to moderate PA more frequently than those without dogs (82). Moreover, the combination of LPA and MVPA has been shown to provide health benefits (83). Numerous revision studies have consistently highlighted the various benefits of pet ownership in promoting PA across different age groups (22, 76, 84–86).In 2013, a meta-analysis of 17 studies demonstrated that DO engage in more walking and overall PA compared to non-dog owners (17). Additionally, a study by Soares et al. (19) revealed that 63.9% of DO reported walking their dogs, and DO were more than 2.5 times more likely to achieve PA guidelines. Recently, Martins et al. (23), confirmed that the presence of pets had a positive effect on the PA levels of DO compared to non-pet owners and that pet owners engaged in PA more frequently than non-pet owners.

In addition to the benefits found in dog DO’s PA levels due to the presence of a dog, DO play a crucial role in facilitating PA in dogs. Dogs have shown a reduced sedentary time when taken for walks outdoors, and more frequent walks are associated with lower sedentary behavior in dogs. The recorded BMI in dogs has also been found to be associated with their PA levels (MPA, MVPA e step count) measured using accelerometers, emphasizing the importance of outdoor walks for dogs. According to Yam et al. (32), the PA performed by dogs ranges from light to moderate intensity, which corresponds to a slow to moderate translocation of the trunk with the dog on a leash. Vigorous PA, on the other hand, corresponds to a rapid translocation of the trunk while running off a leash, typically outdoors. Therefore, taking the dog for a walk outside allows them to achieve exercise intensity levels that help prevent canine obesity. However, the opportunity for dogs to walk without a leash may depend on their behavioral characteristics.

The bond between owners and dogs has been shown to contribute to a higher accumulation of walking minutes by the owners (87). This study revealed that the higher the emotional attachment of the owner to the dog, the higher the levels of PA for both the owner and the dog. These findings highlight the role of pets as a source of motivation and social support for engaging in PA (22, 78). The emotional bond between owners and dogs serves as a driving force for increased PA levels, as the presence of a beloved pet encourages owners to be more active and dedicated to walking and exercising with their dogs.

Moreover, our results also indicated gender differences in the relationship between DO and their dogs. Women exhibited greater emotional closeness with their dogs compared to men, which aligns with previous studies (44, 75, 76). Additionally, women living alone may have a stronger emotional attachment to their dogs and are more likely to take on the responsibilities of dog ownership (e.g., bathing, grooming, and playtime) and dog walking (75) compared to women living with others who share the responsibility (76). These findings suggest that gender and living arrangements can influence the nature of the bond between DO and their dogs, with women often forming closer emotional connections and taking on more active roles in the care and exercise of their pets.

Our results support the psychosocial and therapeutic benefits of human-animal interaction, as they provide emotional support and improve the mental well-being of DO. Walking with a dog has been shown to increase positive affect in DO compared to non-owners, as highlighted by Liao et al. (88). These findings can be explained by fundamental concepts in relationship psychology (89) and attachment theory (90), which emphasize the significance of the quality of the bond between families and dogs, as well as the amount of time spent interacting.

Dog walks provide opportunities for increased interaction and bonding, which can lead to various developmental benefits such as improved self-esteem, self-regulation, and empathy (91). Furthermore, in particular situations of isolation, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic, it has been found that dog walking directly impacts attachment and indirectly influences the perceived loneliness of DO (92). Therefore, increasing PA through the attachment between humans and dogs can be a valuable approach to benefit both owners and their pets, aligning with the goals of the One Health approach (10). Although further investigation is necessary to replicate these findings in larger and more diverse populations, the results of this small-scale study suggest that dog walking can be an important approach to achieve greater health benefits, which should be recognized and promoted.

In conclusion, the findings of this research reinforce that people adopting healthier habits tend to perceive themselves as healthier and exhibit greater concern for their pet's health. Furthermore, there is evidence supporting the emotional attachment between owner and dog, and higher levels of both PA. This positive association between dog ownership and health has important implications for community health, as it can potentially contribute to the reduction of healthcare costs at a broader level. In this regard, our findings add nuances to current research by recognizing that the benefits of having a dog should be seen as a spectrum of multiple mutual influences between the dog and the owner, ultimately resulting in a healthy lifestyle for both and a reduction in non-communicable diseases.

BCS: Body Condition Score

BMI: Body mass index

DO: Dog owner

kcal/kg/h: Kilocalorie per kilogram per hour

LAPS: Lexington attachment to pet’s scale

LPA: Light PA

METs: Number of metabolic equivalents

min/day: Minute per day

MPA: Moderate physical activity

MVPA: Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity

nº/day: Number per day

PA: Physical activity

SD: Standard deviation

SHPS: Subjective health perception scale

VPA: Vigorous physical activity

WHO: World Health Organization

Acknowledgments

The authors are deeply grateful to all participants involved in this study.

Funding

This work was funded by the R&D&I project “oneHcancer – One health approach in animal cancer”, the operation no.: NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000078, co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through NORTE 2020 (North Portugal Regional Operational Program 2014/2020).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal

Catarina F. Martins; Jorge Soares; Graça S. Pinto; Catarina Abrantes; Luís Silva and Maria P. Mota.

Department of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, School of Life and Environmental Sciences (ECVA), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal.

Catarina F. Martins; Jorge Soares; Graça S. Pinto; Catarina Abrantes; Luís Silva and Maria P. Mota.

Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), UTAD, and Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), Vila Real, Portugal

Maria A. Pires and Luís Cardoso

Department of Veterinary Sciences, School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences (ECAV), UTAD, Vila Real, Portugal.

Maria A. Pires and Luís Cardoso

Author Contributions

All authors have made substantial contributions to most elements of the research explained in this manuscript. Conceptualization, C.F.M., and M.P.M.; Study design: C.F.M., J.S., G.P., C.A., L.S., L.C., M.A.P., and M.P.M. Methodology, C.F.M., L.S., and M.P.M.; Acquisition of the data: C.F.M. and M.P.M. Formal analysis and interpretation, C.F.M. and M.P.M.; Writing: C.F.M. and M.P.M. Drafting and revising: C.F.M., J.S., G.P., C.A., L.S., L.C., M.A.P., and M.P.M. All authors contributed to the critical revision of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catarina Freitas Martins

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study received approval from the UTAD ethics committee of the project "One health approach in animal cancer Norte-01-0145-FEDER-000078” Ref.: Doc55-CE-UTAD-2021, and adhered to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all dog owners participating in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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No competing interests reported.

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published 04 Mar, 2024

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Walk or be walked by the dog? The attachment role

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Abstract

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Introduction

Methods

Ethics Statement

Participants

Measures

Socio-Demographic and Health Information

Physical Activity

Lifestyle

Attachment

Statistical Analyses

Results

Participants of study

Associations between variables of the study

Discussion

Conclusion

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1