What is the price of wetlands? Educational experience of economic valuation in Chile

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3211015/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

What is the price of wetlands? Educational experience of economic valuation in Chile

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3211015/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Coastal wetlands are important habitats for human well-being due to their ecosystem services, which require tools to ensure their conservation. Environmental management proposes to estimate the economic value of environmental resources that make decisions in both the ecological and economic spheres. A learning experience was carried out in the context of postgraduate students, addressing the contents of the Economic Aspects of Sustainable Development subject, to then give way to the implementation of two economic valuation methods. The valuation of El Culebrón Wetland was carried out using Contingent Valuation (CV) and Defensive Expenditure (DE) estimation methods in an academic framework. The 20-year valuation results were US$5,750,000 (CV) and US$3,050,009 (DC). The experience allowed us to estimate the economic value of wetlands and reflect on the opportunities and complexities that the application of these methodologies implies, linked to decision-making with an emphasis on the conservation of these vulnerable and productive ecosystems, leaving ethical questions about economic valuation.

Wetlands

Conservation

Economic Valuation

Decision-making

Cultural Ecosystem Services

In recent times, there has been a need to safeguard different ecosystems on the planet, to ensure the well-being of human beings. For this reason, various public and private organizations are allocating resources for protection and conservation. Wetlands are dynamic, ecologically fragile, and one of the most productive ecosystems, exhibiting a wide range of ecological and financial benefits to society (Dash et al. 2022) and play an important role in the provision of ecosystem services (Janse et al. 2019), conferring economic, social, and environmental benefits (Sarwar Hossain and Szabo 2017). The valuation of ecosystem services provided by wetlands globally is estimated at $47 billion annually (Davidson et al. 2019). Despite their crucial importance, they are the most vulnerable ecosystems (Hu et al. 2017), estimating that since 1900, between 64% and 71% of these would have been lost globally (Davidson 2014), that they are disappearing three times faster than forests (UNCC 2018) and in recent studies it is estimated in area about the size of India has been lost since 1700 (Murray et al. 2022). Linked to this agriculture, urbanization, and industry are indicated, consequently, as drivers of its loss globally (Ballut-Dajud et al. 2022) and other drivers such as: agricultural land expansion, the built-up area, the conversion to grassland area, construction of the dam, climate change and tourism (Let and Pal, 2023).

Coastal wetlands are a significant object of study due to their role as an interface between the terrestrial and marine environments, are valuable and sensitive environments that are among the most productive yet highly threatened systems in the world (Navarro and Rodríguez-Santalla, 2023). Among the benefits provided by these ecosystems for the development of life, they include the delivery of food and biomaterials; wildlife habitat; carbon sequestration; protection against storm surges and sediment accumulation; water purification, and tourism, among others (Li et al. 2018). In the last decade, given the degradation of wetland ecosystem functions, several studies have focused on climate change and rapid urbanization, which, individually, generate detrimental effects on wetlands and acting together, multiply their effect (Rojas et al. 2019; Hu et al. 2020). Thus, in the face of climate change, the response of coastal wetlands to sea level rise takes on relevance (Schuerch et al. 2018). Concerning rapid urbanization, the so-called "waterscapes" face multiple conservation challenges, and it is vital to maintain a balance between economic growth and its protection, aiming at sustainable management (Wu et al. 2018); in this way, the sustainable management of wetlands would decompress the great pressure to which they are subjected by human action, avoiding the loss of ecosystem services (Newton et al. 2020). The above has been a source of controversy, as it is pointed out that development policies driven globally would have affected coastal wetlands by promoting or allowing urban and economic activities to proliferate without regulation (Mojica, Barrasa and Espinosa 2018); such is the example of China, where the deterioration of wetlands is reflected aquaculture, industrialization and coastal urbanization (Wang et al. 2020), resulting in significant ecological degradation (Lin and Yu 2018).

Given this situation, it is essential to find sustainable management tools that make it possible to highlight the importance of these ecosystems, make the consequences of their loss or degradation visible and raise awareness among students (Papapanagou, Tiniaiakou and Georgiadis 2005). Thus, the economic valuation of wetlands has been used to quantify their principal ecosystem services, providing inputs to policymakers (Thapa et al. 2020). This discipline has been the subject of research over time, with its use gaining ground among decision-makers (Guijarro and Tsinaslanidis 2020). However, complementary studies highlight that a lack of understanding of the economic value of ecosystems limits their use in management (Baral et al. 2016), in addition to a lack of awareness among policymakers, planners, and other stakeholders (Badamfirooz, Mousazadeh and Sarkheil 2021). Then, the challenge remains to highlight the use of economic valuation of wetlands in the policy formulation process (Stuip and van Dam 2018).

Given the urgency to raise awareness in society about the importance of biodiversity through environmental education (Van Weelie and Wals 2002) and to provide environmental management tools to decision-makers for the construction of sustainable or conservation public policies, this study shows the performance of postgraduate students in (i) the economic valuation of the El Culebrón Wetland (Coquimbo, Chile) using the contingent valuation (CV) and defensive expenditure (DE) methods, and (ii) the process of learning, practice, and reflection involved in the economic valuation of these "sensitive and productive" ecosystems. The article aims to contribute as the first study of this approach in El Culebrón Wetland.

Study Area and Research Approach

El Culebrón Wetland located in Coquimbo, Chile (-29.9623, -71.32117) (Fig. 1), was used as the area of study. The coastal wetland is located in an urban area (1 km from the city center) and covers an area of approximately 45 hectares. It originates in the creek of the same name and flows into the "Playa Changa" sector. Hydro geologically, "El Culebrón" estuary depends on an aquifer of subterranean origin (Menceyra 2016) and has a mixed water supply. There is a diverse avifauna, estimated at 150 species (Vargas-Rodríguez, Pastén-Marambio and Cortez-Echeverría 2016).

< Fig. 1 near here >

It provides recreational ecosystem services (an important green space for society), biodiversity conservation (wildlife refuge), research (local flora and fauna), and education (open classes inside the wetland). Although there are regulatory measures that protect wetlands in Chile, the wetland is an ecosystem affected by high anthropogenic pressures, mainly linked to urban development, added to the proliferation of micro dumps and debris deposits (Corporación Ambientes Acuáticos de Chile 2005); the presence of motor vehicles (Chávez-Villavicencio, Molina-Pérez and Tabilo Valdiveso 2015); feral dogs that prey on birds (Bravo-Naranjo et al. 2019); illegal water extraction (Diario La Región 2022); unlawful land appropriation (Ceresa and Martínez 2007); and existence of foul odors from sewage dumping (Tenisi 2016). The wetland has recently undergone a revitalization process, linked to conservation projects (Plataforma Costera 2022) and the proposal for an Urban Park (El Observatodo 2021) (Fig. 2).

< Fig. 2 near here >

Within the framework of the Master's Program in Environmental Management (Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile), the academic activity of valuation of an environmental asset (i.e., coastal wetland) was designed. The training activity contributed to the achievement of the stated curricular objectives, such as economic aspects of sustainable development (first year of the program). The learning activity was developed following the collaborative work methodology (Gladwin, Karsgaard and Shultz 2022) and was carried out in groups of two and three students (Emmons 1997). The students were education and engineering graduates associated with the natural sciences from Chile and Mexico. The activity was supervised by two professors from the economic and social sciences.

Instrument design

The contents related to methods of economic valuation of natural resources served as a theoretical basis for the valuation methodology, the definition of the required information (i.e., dataset and fieldwork), identification of opportunities and limitations to information access, and quantitative analysis. The working material for students was a) guideline for the student (Suplementary Files 1), b) academic evaluation rubrics (Suplementary Files 2), and c) self-assessment and peer-assessment instruments (Suplementary Files 3). Figure 3 shows the sequence used to execute the learning experience, which was composed of preparation sessions, fieldwork, debate workshops, analysis, and discussion of results (i.e., intermediate, and final instances).

< Fig. 3 near here >

Fieldwork

Fieldwork was carried out in the study area with the assistance of students and professors of the course. During the visit, the site was exhibited and toured, indicating the aspects to be considered in the academic project, with emphasis on the search for the method of valorization appropriate to the context of the coastal wetland. The dialogue focused on areas such as anthropogenic pressures, history, biodiversity, biogeography, human dimension, governance, community policies, and related ecosystem services. The visit concluded with the question: What is the appropriate economic method to valorize this wetland? Participants took field notes and photographs, and an initial focus group was developed.

Breakthrough Workshop: debate, analysis, and discussion of methodologies

The first workshop was developed in presentation format, where the groups presented the following aspects to be analyzed and evaluated: state of the art, the definition of the sources for obtaining information, the definition of the economic valuation method, and bibliographic sources. The debate after the presentation allowed for discussion and feedback on the method used, the sources of information, and the challenges and opportunities of the project. Observations and grades were recorded by teachers and students.

Final workshop Debate, analysis, and discussion of results

The second workshop consisted of the presentation of the results in a format like the first workshop. The student groups presented the following results to be evaluated: presentation of the findings obtained, systematization and processing of the information, discussion and conclusion regarding the valuation and proposal of improvements to the economic valuation method. The discussion among peers and teachers allowed questions to be raised about each group's evaluation of the work, self-evaluation, and co-evaluation.

Focus Group: reflections on the economic valorization of El Culebrón Wetland

To finalize the project, a focus group was held in an open format, where the following questions were asked: How was the evaluation of the process; What are the main difficulties in economically valuing an environmental asset; What are the main complications in implementing economic valuation methods; If they had the resources to implement the valuation method, what things would they change; Is it very difficult to value intangible assets; If they had the resources to implement the valuation method, what would they change? Finally, the participants were invited to reflect on the practical and public policy implications of the economic valuation of wetlands and natural resources, linking it to conservation issues. Responses were recorded and examined using thematic content analysis.

Each working group chose its project based on an economic valuation method. The methods used by the groups were: Defensive Expenditures (DE), which include an economic quantification of costs (e.g., investments, operation, and maintenance), and Contingent Valuation (CV), which proposes a hypothetical market based on the willingness to be compensated for not receiving the ecosystem services of a natural resource or the willingness to pay for it. The main results are shown below:

Defensive expenses:

The application of the DE method was based on the proposed creation of the "Parque Urbano Humedal El Culebrón" with a 20-year projection, taking as an incentive to remedy the main external threats that impact the wetland. An economic value was obtained that corresponds to the "expense" that must be incurred to protect, preserve, and conserve the wetland through the sum of all costs arising from the implementation of educational activities, interpretive trails, infrastructure, remote surveillance, maintenance, and administration. This initiative takes as a reference the Communal Regulatory Plan of the city of Coquimbo (Municipalidad de Coquimbo 2019), where the first environmental objective is to protect areas of environmental fragility and landscape quality, one of these being El Culebrón Wetland. In addition, the roadmap of the "Parque El Culebrón" Management Plan (Grupo Motor 2020) was considered, which addresses a design proposal and guidelines for the management and operation of the park based on socio-environmental sustainability. Finally, proposals from two studies from the University of Chile (Menceyra 2016; Fagalde 2018) were reviewed with an emphasis on preservation and conservation by proposing the creation of an urban park. The proposal was organized into 3 stages: construction, operation, and evaluation.

Construction

The infrastructure works, connections, and the creation of spaces for the observation, visitation and tour of the wetland were budgeted. A division of two sectors was proposed for the area to be intervened: one for remote observation (with greater biological value), and a second sector dedicated to platforms and trails for recreational activities and flora and fauna research, as well as for vehicle parking. For the trails, universal access was planned (for people with disabilities) and the implementation of signage and interpretive panels, with a physical layout that minimizes the impact on flora and fauna. The platforms will be in the places where the flora and fauna are most visible. Fixed binoculars and observation guides were used to conduct the educational-environmental experience. The example and infrastructure of the Batuco wetland was used as a reference (Fundación San Carlos de Maipo 2022).

Operation

During the park's useful life, open educational activities focused on all levels of education were planned to raise awareness of the wetland's value, characteristics, functions, and environmental importance. These activities will be carried out by civil and academic organizations that today carry out promotion and conservation activities in the wetland. The park will be managed by a director who will oversee planning activities, leading meetings, and working groups, managing applications for funds to support legal bodies for the protection of wetlands with the collaboration of the Municipality of Coquimbo and civil communities, encouraging research, and generating links with educational institutions (Table 1).

Table 1

*Actions and activities within the Wetland Park El Culebrón*
Scope	Activities/Actions
Conservation and species preservation	Talks or cycles of environmental valorization.
Environmental education	To promote learning about environmental characteristics of the wetland Create civil awareness of the ecosystem services provided by the wetland.
Business sector	Generate activities and/or donations with a focus on the Corporate and social responsibility
Cleanup operations	Implementing a waste management system with waste separation and waste such as: cartons, cans, glass, and plastics.
Observation of birds	Incentivize book launches to promote the cultural space.
Investigation	Create a network of academics, researchers, and teachers. motivated by the scientific interest in the wetland.

< Table 1 near here >

Evaluation

Last activity, an evaluation system was planned to be implemented to analyze the state of the infrastructure through statistical data on educational programs and initiatives and outreach activities, to identify required improvements.

Estimated Total Economic Value El Culebrón Wetland

The total economic value for the conservation of the wetland considers the execution of the three stages described above, the evaluation time was 20 years from its construction. Table 2 shows the sum of the three stages totaling US$3.050.009 (US$254.167.42 per year).

Table 2
20-year phased economic values of El Culebrón Wetland Park project
Stage	Detail	Price US$
I. Construction
Observation platform	3 observation platforms (4x4 meters each)	$ 56.259,00
Interpretive trails	3 interpretative trails (500 meters each)	$ 60.000,00
Information boards	9 information boards	$ 11.250,00
Perimeter enclosure	Structure bordering the entire perimeter of the park (2200 meters)	$ 125.000,00
	Sub-total	$ 252.509,00
Stage	Detail	Price US$
II. Operation
Activities	1440 activities	$ 540.000,00
Broadcasting	1440 activity diffusions	$ 180.000,00
Funds for the Research and Linking	40 competitive funds	$ 150.000,00
Administration	Park management and administration	$ 1.500.000,00
Tele surveillance	Security cameras system	$ 150.000,00
order and cleanliness	Creation and operation of the Order and Cleanliness Commission	$ 240.000,00
	Sub-total	$ 2.760.000,00
Stage	Detail	Price US$
III. Evaluation
Evaluation system	Application of self-management protocol	$ 37.500,00
	Sub-total	$ 37.500,00
	Total	$ 3.050.009,00

< Table 2 near here >

Contingent valuation

The economic estimation focused on the users' willingness to pay for the environmental services provided by the wetland. A survey was designed to collect information on the "willingness to pay" of key stakeholders. For both the design and the definition of actors, a visit to the wetland was made, which allowed visualizing the anthropic factors that affect the wetland and that are of interest for data collection.

Stakeholder map

The identification of actors linked to the recreational use of the wetland was carried out through the review of mass media (press and social networks), as well as research, governmental, and civil society institutions (e.g., NGOs, Neighborhood Councils). The results of the definition of stakeholders were students, academics, researchers in environmental areas, environmental groups or associations, and the public with tourism or recreational interests (e.g., leisure, research, photography, education, and outreach). The sample consisted of 30 people (N = 30).

Survey design and application

An electronic pilot survey (prototype or test) was designed based on four sections: a) presentation of the instrument, a brief description of the wetland and survey objectives; b) questions aimed at determining participants' familiarity and interaction with the study site; c) questions focused on the economic valuation of the site (i.e., direct questions on monetary values willing to pay), and d) collection of socioeconomic information. The application was through the Google Forms® platform.

Estimated Total Economic Value El Culebrón Wetland

The survey results were analyzed for each section of the instrument. Section 2 showed that 76.7% of the respondents had visited the wetland before the survey and 93.3% of the respondents would visit it in the future. The purpose of the visit, photography predominates with 70% versus the other alternatives. When asked about the benefits of the wetland, 100% indicated biodiversity, while 66.7% indicated climate change mitigation, 63.3% recreation and tourism, 60% flood protection, and 36.7% water supply. Meanwhile, they would recommend visiting the wetland, the response was affirmative by all respondents (100%). Section 3, on the willingness to pay to visit the wetland, 20% of the respondents indicated that they would not do so; of the affirmative answers corresponding to 80%, a mode of: US$1.00 and a median of US$1.50. Of the responses on making a voluntary contribution to the maintenance of the wetland, 66.7% would make a voluntary contribution; considering these responses, the mode and median is US$2.00. Regarding the estimated value of protecting and conserving the wetland's environmental services, 43.3% of respondents indicated that "It is not possible to determine a value", while 56.7% placed a monetary value on the wetland, with a mode of US$11.500.000 and a median of US$5.750.000. Regarding anthropogenic activities affecting the wetland: 93.3% of industrial waste collection and 73.3% of productive enterprises. Finally, among the proposals to improve the experience in the wetland, 100% were for trails, 60% for toilets and 36.7% for parking lots. In section 4, on the respondent's data, 86.7% of the participants have a completed university education and 10% have completed secondary school. The place of residence was 66.7% in the city of Coquimbo; the age range between 30 and 59 years obtained 73.3% of responses. Finally, all respondents were of Chilean nationality, with no significant difference in the types of activities and gender identity (Fig. 4).

< Fig. 4 near here>

The educational experience involved putting into practice content related to environmental economics, specifically, two methods of economic valuation: Contingent and Defensive Expenses applied to a wetland in the coastal area of Coquimbo. At a general level, the results show that the value obtained through the CV method was US$5.750.000, while the value obtained through the DE method was US$3.050.009, both considering a 20-year horizon.

Relevant aspects emerge from the projects carried out and analyzed, which highlight the need to conserve the ecosystem. One axis to consider is linked to the phenomena of coastal urbanization in Chile, specifically in the city of Coquimbo (Aguilera 2019). The wetland is located in a privileged and high-interest sector affected for years by urban expansion and real estate development of the city, which has generated a significant decrease in its total area, intervention of watercourses and loss of natural spaces (Alvarez 2020). Another relevant factor was linked to anthropic pressures related to human-environment interaction, visualizing future uncertainty (Araya-Piñones, Salas-Bravo and Campos-Castillo 2019). This panorama, although it has improved over time, due to various private and public conservation initiatives (e.g., the work of NGOs: "Conciencia Ecológica" and the Municipalidad de Coquimbo 2021) and the creation of the Urban Wetlands Law (Law 21.202 of 2020), continues to be a current and future challenge.

One of the conservation alternatives proposed the provision of infrastructure related to the implementation of a park, expressed in perimeter closures for the area, which would be an effective solution to bird predation, waste disposal, and inappropriate uses, among others. Due to the need to prevent damage to the wetland area, the creation of an urban park responds to these problems with a conservation and projection basis over time. The materialization of the park would improve the link between society and environmental issues, generating opportunities for environmental education and adding cultural value, which would increase interest in the community and it is one of effective ways to maintain and expand the protected area of wetlands (Zhou et al. 2020). Based on its importance, the park initiative has been raised on several occasions (Cavieres 2014; Menceyra 2016; Fagalde 2018; El Observatodo 2021). The other alternative adopted (CV) sought to highlight the recreational and cultural value of the wetland. From the surveys, photography, and recreation were indicated as the main purpose of a visitation and it is inferred that visitors need a recreational place within the city to unwind; this is related to the fact that wetlands have been visualized as ecosystems that contribute to the quality of life of city dwellers (Pedersen, Weisner and Johansson 2019) and coastal areas (Sutton-Grier and Sandifer 2019). Other experiences, it has been reported the generation of urban parks in wetland areas for the maintenance and expansion of protected areas (Zhou et al 2020); the generation of artificial wetlands for educational use (Gitau, Ndiritu and Gichuki 2019); or expressed in economic terms by obtaining economic benefits for recreational use (Thapa et al. 2020).

In a similar way to the valorization of El Culebrón Wetland by the two methodologies used, one of the buildings in the sector can be taken as a comparative use (see Fig. 1). The real estate expansion projections allow for establishing an economic value through the opportunity cost of the land required. We mention the case of the Altamar Building, which has 27 floors and an area of 8.929 m2, one of its 54 m2 apartments is currently selling for US$ 93.347 (Source: https://www.portalinmobiliario.com/MLC-976933572-condominio-altamar-coquimbo-_JM ). The pressure that this type of real estate project generates on the authorities puts pressure on decision-making regarding the economic values of direct use (land) versus existence values (conservation of flora and fauna), raising educational and ethical questions such as: "What is more valuable, an urban park or a housing complex?", or "what provides greater benefits?". In the case of the described wetland, it represents an ecosystem inserted in the urban context (urban wetland), there being a growing need to protect these "green spaces" in the city (Law 21202 2020), in response to the large number of anthropogenic pressures on the that are exposed. In this context, visualizing wetlands as "multiple-use spaces" that contribute to the quality of life and well-being of the inhabitants is a recent concern (Andrews and Russo 2022), and current conservation policies can give an important shift with the objective of focusing on the conservation of wetlands as spaces for the well-being and improvement of the mental and physical health of the population (Sutton-Grier and Sandifer 2019).

In pedagogical reflection, it is possible to identify several themes. The first is linked to the difficulty of estimating an economic value for a wetland, which is a theoretical and practical challenge. In the initial versus final reflections, the "collapse" of preconceived ideas and beliefs about the concept of economy is recorded, showing that the first approach aimed at opting for direct valuation methods (water, land, etc.), turning around (later) by opting for the use of methodologies linked to recreational value or cultural ecosystem services. As indicated by Pooly and O'Connor (Pooly and O'Connor 2000), decision-making based on emotions and beliefs allows for overcoming economic and knowledge paradigms after interacting with the environment. This is how fieldwork for higher education levels becomes an essential educational action component (Scott et al. 2012).

In terms of the overall evaluation, the method of the economic value of DE would have been appropriate for the conservation of the environmental asset, since the proposed actions are aimed directly at this, in addition to the approach and the knowledge of the environment that the people who visit it will receive. The CV method was a challenge due to the complexity of its implementation; however, the richness and depth of the analysis generated an understanding of the methodology beyond economic valuation, raising questions for future research initiatives.

Within the limitations of experience, the CV methodology (willingness to pay) is a complex method that requires more time to develop, an example of this is reported Baez-Montenegro et al. (Baez-Montenegro et al. 2022) in an investigation on Río Cruces wetland in Chile, and their willingness to pay (WTP) to visit it. The planning of the activity should consider the contact of the stakeholders to be surveyed, the design of the survey and its application with a significant sample, as well as a correct analysis and interpretation of the results. The aspects just mentioned could be complementary since correct planning will have repercussions on the adequate use of time in educational activities (Pomerantz 1991). At a global level, economic valuation is intrinsically difficult, because realistic situations of environmental valuation are rarely observed (Guijarro and Tsinaslanidis 2020); this could be visualized in both projects, mainly due to the time of the activity dedication and the complexities involved in the complete analysis of the socio-ecological system. A projection of this research could use the example of Xu and He (Xu and He 2022), who holistically used the choice experiment method (CEM) and individual travel cost method (ITCM), which could deepen the current analysis.

As a final reflection, although the future of wetlands needs immediate discussion and action, significant progress has been made in valuing the goods and services they deliver (Barbier 2019). In the case of Chile, it is estimated that there are around 18,000 wetlands in the territory (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente 2017) and only 13 of them were declared as RAMSAR Site (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente 2018). Actions such as ecological restoration are important initiatives to safeguard wetlands, one example is the case of the Laguna Conchalí coastal wetland (Contreras, Novoa, and Rubilar 2017). On one hand, this environmental education experience deepens the generation of information about wetlands, considering that the main problem in the conservation of these ecosystems is the lack of knowledge about the ecosystem services they provide to society (Hu, Wright, and He 2022). In addition, it facilitates an understanding of the complex balance between economic benefits and environmental conservation, inviting us to move from: What is the economic value of a wetland? to What decisions can I make once the ecosystem value of a wetland has been determined?

The present investigation carried out an educational experience focused on the use of two methods of economic valuation: Defensive expenses and Contingent Valorization, with a focus on an urban wetland in the city of Coquimbo (Chile): El Culebrón. The educational experience shows that (A) it is possible to economically value a coastal wetland using non-conventional economic valuation methods, (B) discussions and ethical reflections on the importance of valuation methods should be promoted in learning processes in the fields of environmental management, environmental economics, environmental education, and cultural ecosystem services, and (C) the economic valuation of coastal wetlands serves to support the decision-making process.

The educational experience left important ethical reflections, linked to moving from what is the "value"? What conservation decisions can I make with that “value”? Various questions remained, which we want to list below, as a possibility for future exploration:

1) What is the practical utility of economic valuation focused on non-use or, from the perspective of Cultural Ecosystem Services?

2) How can we integrate the values obtained in a public policy focused on the conservation of these ecosystems?

3) Is environmental education the main tool and "answer" to promote wetland conservation?

4) How to position wetlands as one of the main spaces for human well-being?

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Master's Program in Environmental Management, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile.

Fundings

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Competing Interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. Preparation of the material, data collection, and analysis were carried out by Angelo Araya-Piñones, José Bakit, Mario Flores, Matías Guerrero, Mariela Silva, Leslie Valencia-Ceballos, and Fabiola Varela. The original draft of the manuscript was written by Angelo Araya-Piñones and José Bakit. The final version was reviewed and corrected by Angelo Araya-Piñones, José Bakit, and Rodrigo Poblete. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request

Aguilera M (2019) Urbanización costera en la conurbación Coquimbo- La Serena: Oportunidades para conservar y rehabilitar los ecosistemas naturales urbanos y sus servicios. In: Henríquez D, Moncayo L (eds) CONSTRUYENDO REALIDAD. Estudios y propuestas para el desarrollo de la Región de Coquimbo. Instituto de Políticas Públicas, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Coquimbo, Chile, pp 197–222
Álvarez O (2020) Coquimbo: ¿Preservará el Humedal El Culebrón? Diario digital Ovalle Hoy. https://ovallehoy.cl/coquimbo-preservara-el-humedal-el-culebron/ Accessed 8 May 2023
Andrews C, Russo A (2022) Exploring the Driving Factors that Influence the Design, Function, and Use of Urban Wetlands in the United Kingdom. Wetlands 42:93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-022-01610-1
Araya-Piñones A, Salas-Bravo S, Campos-Castillo C (2019) Percepción futura del humedal “el culebrón”, Coquimbo (Chile): una experiencia educativa interdisciplinaria. Luna Azul 49:220–240. https://doi.org/10.17151/luaz.2019.49.13
Badamfirooz J, Mousazadeh R, Sarkheil H (2021) A proposed framework for economic valuation and assessment of damages cost to national wetlands ecosystem services using the benefit-transfer approach. Environ Chall 5:100303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100303
Báez-Montenegro A, Echeverría R, Sepúlveda E, Calcagni V (2022) Does an Environmental Disaster Influence the Tourists’ Willingness to Pay for a Wetland? The case of the Cruces River Wetland in Southern Chile. Wetlands 42:82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-022-01600-3
Baral S, Basnyat B, Khanal R, Gauli K (2016) A total economic valuation of wetland ecosystem services: An evidence from Jagadishpur Ramsar site, Nepal. Sci. World J. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2605609
Barbier EB (2019) The Value of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services. In: Perillo G, Wolanski E, Cahoon D, Hopkinson C (eds) Coastal Wetlands an Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Elsevier, pp 947–964
Ballut-Dajud GA, Sandoval Herazo LC, Fernández-Lambert G, Marín-Muñiz JL, López Méndez MC, Betanzo-Torres EA (2022) Factors Affecting Wetland Loss: A Review. Land 11:434. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11030434
Bravo-Naranjo V, Jiménez RR, Zuleta C, Rau JR, Valladares P, Piñones C (2019) Selección de presas por perros callejeros en el humedal Estero Culebrón (Coquimbo, Chile). Gayana (Concepción) 83:102–113. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0717-65382019000200102
Cavieres M (2014) Diseño de un plan de manejo ecosistémico para la conservación ambiental del humedal El Culebrón. Tesis de Ingeniería de Ejecución en Gestión Ambiental. Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano, Santiago de Chile. http://bibliotecadigital.academia.cl/xmlui/handle/123456789/3307
Cerasa M, Martínez L (2007) Determinación de impactos ambientales causados por el desarrollo urbano en el estero Culebrón, IV Región, Chile, aplicando metodología SIG. Memoria para obtener el Título de Ingeniero en Prevención de Riesgos y Medioambiente, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile. https://snia.mop.gob.cl/repositoriodga/handle/20.500.13000/1750
Chávez-Villavicencio C, Molina-Pérez P, Tabilo-Valdivieso E (2015) Respuesta de la riqueza de aves en presencia de visitantes, vehículos y perros en el humedal “El Culebrón”, Chile. The Biologist (Lima) 13:313–327
Contreras M, Novoa FF, Rubilar JP (2017) Conchalí Lagoon: Coastal Wetland Restoration Project (Chile). In: Finlayson C, Milton G, Prentice R, Davidson N (eds) The Wetland Book: II: Distribution, Description and Conservation. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–9
Corporación Ambientes Acuáticos de Chile (2005) Los humedales no pueden esperar: Manual para el Uso Racional del Sistema de Humedales Costeros de Coquimbo. http://www.centroneotropical.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/LOS-HUMEDALES-NO-PUEDEN-ESPERAR-2005.pdf Accessed 28 June 2023
Dash SK, Payra A, Sonker G, Palei HS, Mishra K, Mishra RK (2022) The Role of Education and Resource Benefit on People’s Perception Towards Conserving the Largest Freshwater Lake of Odisha, India. Wetlands 42:97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-023-01657-8
Davidson NC (2014) How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area. Mar Freshw Res 65:934–941. https://doi.org/10.1071/mf14173
Davidson NC, Van Dam AA, Finlayson CM, McInnes RJ (2019) Worth of wetlands: revised global monetary values of coastal and inland wetland ecosystem services. Mar Freshw Res 70:1189–1194. https://doi.org/10.1071/mf18391
Diario La Región (2022) Sorprenden a camión privado sacando agua desde Humedal El Culebrón. Diario La Región. https://www.diariolaregion.cl/sorprenden-a-camion-privado-sacando-agua-desde-humedal-el-culebron/ Accessed 7 June 2023
El Observatodo (2021) Así será el parque "Humedal El Culebrón". El Observatodo. https://www.elobservatodo.cl/noticia/medioambiente/asi-sera-el-parque-humedal-el-culebron. Accessed 6 June 2023
Emmons KM (1997) Perspectives on environmental action: Reflection and revision through practical experience. J Environ Educ 29:34–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00958969709599105
Fagalde M (2018) Parque el Culebrón en Coquimbo: regeneración natural de un paisaje erosionado sustentado en el reciclaje y la eficiencia del recurso hídrico local. Memoria para optar al título de Arquitecto. Universidad de Chile, Santiago. https://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/172993
Fundación San Carlos de Maipo (2022) El Humedal de Batuco. https://www.fsancarlos.cl/conoce-el-humedal-batuco/ Accessed 10 March 202
Gitau PN, Ndiritu GG, Gichuki NN (2019) Ecological, recreational and educational potential of a small artificial wetland in an urban environment. Afr J Aquat Sci 44:329–338. https://doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2019.1663721
Gladwin D, Karsgaard C, Shultz L (2022) Collaborative learning on energy justice: International youth perspectives on energy literacy and climate justice. J Environ Educ 53:251–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2022.2113019
Grupo Motor (2020) Hoja de Ruta Plan de Gestión Parque Humedal El Culebrón. http://cienciaciudadana.ceaza.cl/images/documentos/HOJA_DE_RUTA_PLAN_DE_GESTIN_EL_CULEBRON_-_GRUPO_MOTOR.pdf Accessed 12 May 2023
Guijarro F, Tsinaslanidis P (2020) Analysis of Academic Literature on Environmental Valuation. Int J Environ Health Res 17:2386. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072386
Hu S, Niu Z, Chen Y, Li L, Zhang H (2017) Global wetlands: Potential distribution, wetland loss, and status. Sci Total Environ 586:319–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.001
Hu T, Liu J, Zheng G, Zhang D, Huang K (2020) Evaluation of historical and future wetland degradation using remote sensing imagery and land use modeling. Land Degrad Dev 31:65–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3429
Hu C, Wright AL, He S (2022) Public perception and willingness to pay for urban wetland ecosystem services: evidence from China. Wetlands 42:19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-022-01538-6
Janse JH, Van Dam AA, Hes EM, de Klein JJ, Finlayson CM, Janssen AB, van Wijk D, Mooij WM, Verhoeven JT (2019) Towards a global model for wetlands ecosystem services. Curr Opin Environ Sustainability 36:11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.09.002
Law 21202 (2020) Modifica diversos cuerpos legales con el objetivo de proteger los humedales urbanos. 23 de enero de 2020. https://www.camara.cl/verDoc.aspx?prmID=14845&prmTIPO=INICIATIVA#:~:text=Ley%20N°21.202%3A,de%20proteger%20los%20humedales%20urbanos. Accesed 1 June 2023.
Let M, Pal S (2023) Socio-ecological well-being perspectives of wetland loss scenario: A review. J Environ Manage 326:116692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116692
Li X, Bellerby R, Craft C, Widney SE (2018) Coastal wetland loss, consequences, and challenges for restoration. Anthropocene Coasts 1:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1139/anc-2017-0001
Lin Q, Yu S (2018) Losses of natural coastal wetlands by land conversion and ecological degradation in the urbanizing Chinese coast. Sci Rep 8:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33406-x
Menceyra F (2016) Observatorio natural Humedal El Culebrón. Memoria para optar al título de Arquitecto, Universidad de Chile, Santiago. https://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/143796
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (2017) Chile tiene 18 mil humedales y solo el 2% de ellos cuenta con algún tipo de protección. https://mma.gob.cl/chile-tiene-18-mil-humedales-y-solo-el-2-de-ellos-cuenta-con-algun-tipo-de-proteccion/ Accessed 16 June 2023
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (2018) Plan Nacional de Protección de Humedales 2018–2022. https://mma.gob.cl/wpcontent/uploads/2018/11/Plan_humedales_Baja_confrase_VERSION-DEFINITIVA.pdf. Accessed 26 June 2023
Mojica JM, Barrasa S, Espinoza A (2018) Policies in coastal wetlands: Key challenges. Environ Sci Policy 88:72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.06.016
Municipalidad de Coquimbo (2019) Plan Regulador Comunal. https://www.municoquimbo.cl/index.php/plano-regulador-2019 Accessed 7 May 2023
Municipalidad de Coquimbo (2021) Nuevo operativo de limpieza en Humedal El Culebrón, busca generar conciencia sobre el cuidado medio ambiental. https://www.municoquimbo.cl/index.php/noticias/6697-nuevo-operativo-de-limpieza-en-humedal-el-culebron-busca-generar-conciencia-sobre-el-cuidado-medio-ambiental Accessed 3 March 2023
Murray NJ, Worthington TA, Bunting P et al (2022) High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth’s tidal wetlands. Science 376:744–749. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm9583
Newton A, Icely J, Cristina S et al (2020) Anthropogenic, direct pressures on coastal wetlands. Front Ecol Evol 8:144. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00144
Navarro N, Rodríguez-Santalla I (2023) Coastal Wetlands. J Mar Sci Eng 11:767. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11040767
Papapanagou E, Tiniakou A, Georgiadis T (2005) Environmental education in wetland ecosystems. J Biol Educ 40:25–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2005.9656005
Pedersen E, Weisner SE, Johansson M (2019) Wetland areas' direct contributions to residents' well-being entitle them to high cultural ecosystem values. Sci Total Environ 646:1315–1326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.236
Plataforma C (2022) Conservación, Memoria y Patrimonio en el Humedal El Culebrón. https://plataformacostera.org/portfolio/conservacion-memoria-y-patrimonio-en-el-humedal-el-culebron/ Accessed 7 June 2023
Pomerantz GA (1991) Evaluation of natural resource education materials: Implications for resource management. J Environ Educ 22:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1991.9943050
Pooley JA, O’Connor M (2000) Environmental education and attitudes: Emotions and beliefs are what is needed. Environ Behav 32:711–723. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916500325007
Rojas C, Munizaga J, Rojas O, Martínez C, Pino J (2019) Urban development versus wetland loss in a coastal Latin American city: Lessons for sustainable land use planning. Land use policy 80:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.09.036
Sarwar Hossain M, Szabo S (2017) Understanding the Social-ecological System of Wetlands. In: Kumar Prusty BA, Chandra R, Azeez PA (eds) Wetland Science Perspectives from South Asia. Springer, New Delhi, pp 285–300
Schuerch M, Spencer T, Temmerman S et al (2018) Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise. Nature 561:231–234. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0476-5
Scott GW, Goulder R, Wheele P, Scott LJ, Tobin ML, Marsham S (2012) The value of fieldwork in life and environmental sciences in the context of higher education: A case study in learning about biodiversity. J Sci Educ Technol 21:11–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9276-x
Stuip M, van Dam AA (2018) Economic Valuation of Wetlands: Case Studies. In: Finlayson CM, Everard M, Irvine K et al (eds) The Wetland Book I: Structure and Function, Management, and Methods. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 2157–2167
Sutton-Grier AE, Sandifer PA (2018) Conservation of Wetlands and Other Coastal Ecosystems: A Commentary on their Value to Protect Biodiversity, Reduce Disaster Impacts, and Promote Human Health and Well-Being. Wetlands 39:1295–1302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-018-1039-0
Tenisi A (2016) Aseguran que malos olores en El Culebrón no es por vertimiento de aguas servidas. Diario La Región. https://www.elobservatodo.cl/noticia/sociedad/aseguran-que-malos-olores-en-el-culebron-no-es-por-vertimiento-de-aguas-servidas Accessed 8 April 2023
Thapa S, Wang L, Koirala A et al (2020) Valuation of ecosystem services from an important wetland of Nepal: A Study from Begnas watershed system. Wetlands 40:1071–1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-020-01303-7
UNCC (2018) Wetlands Disappearing Three Times Faster than Forests. https://unfccc.int/news/wetlands-disappearing-three-times-faster-than-forests
Van Weelie D, Wals A (2002) Making biodiversity meaningful through environmental education. Int J Sci Educ 24:1143–1156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500690210134839
Vargas-Rodríguez R, Pastén-Marambio V, Cortez-Echeverría J (2016) Manual del Científico Ciudadano Biodiversidad: Aves de humedales costeros. http://cienciaciudadana.ceaza.cl/images/documentos/Manual_Biodiversidad_7.pdf Accessed 03 July 2023
Wu W, Yang Z, Tian B, Huang Y, Zhou Y, Zhang T (2018) Impacts of coastal reclamation on wetlands: Loss, resilience, and sustainable management. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 210:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2018.06.013
Wang X, Xiao X, Zou Z et al (2020) Mapping coastal wetlands of China using time series Landsat images in 2018 and Google Earth Engine. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 163:312–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2020.03.014
Xu S, He X (2022) Application of Choice Experiment and Individual Travel Cost Methods in Recreational Value Evaluation. Wetlands 42:53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-022-01569-z
Zhou L, Guan D, Huang X, Yuan X, Zhang M (2020) Evaluation of the cultural ecosystem services of wetland park. Ecol Indic 114:106286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106286

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

What is the price of wetlands? Educational experience of economic valuation in Chile

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials y methods

Study Area and Research Approach

Instrument design

Fieldwork

Breakthrough Workshop: debate, analysis, and discussion of methodologies

Final workshop Debate, analysis, and discussion of results

Focus Group: reflections on the economic valorization of El Culebrón Wetland

Results

Defensive expenses:

Construction

Operation

Estimated Total Economic Value El Culebrón Wetland

Contingent valuation

Stakeholder map

Survey design and application

Estimated Total Economic Value El Culebrón Wetland

Discussion

Conclusiones

Declarations

References

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1