Resilience through the Lens of Optimism, Self-Esteem, Life Satisfaction, and Virtues: Hierarchical Regression Analysis

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3242982/v1

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Research Article

Resilience through the Lens of Optimism, Self-Esteem, Life Satisfaction, and Virtues: Hierarchical Regression Analysis

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3242982/v1

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Background

The present study is to examine the effect virtues (courage, practical wisdom, integrity, committed action, emotional transcendence) in predicting resilience.

Methods

595 adults participated in the study. At the first stage of regression analysis, resilience was predicted based on participants’ optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction scores. Then, five virtues that include courage, integrity, practical wisdom, committed action, and emotional transcendence were added in the second stage regression model, and changes in the Adjusted R2 were inspected via hierarchical regression analysis.

Results

In the first stage, 21% of the variance in resilience was explained by the combination of optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. With the addition of virtue factors, the total variance of resilience explained was then improved to 56%.

Conclusion

Change in the Adjusted R² was 35%, indicative of virtue effect. Virtue was a popular concept in the early history of behavior science but became disfavored with the rise of empiricism as it was viewed as a moral and philosophical construct. The results of this study reassure that virtue can be studied empirically and findings necessitate additional research into the virtue effect in the context of resilience and adjustment to life's challenges.

resilience

adaptation

virtue

V-PAM

Life adversities such as chronic illness, disability, and mental health issues are part of human life, however, resilience (i.e., one’s response to these difficulties) is what makes a difference in recovering from challenges [1]. Resilience is a multidimensional construct that encompasses one’s individual (e.g., personal attributes such as self-esteem and life satisfaction), familial (e.g., parenting, cohesion), and social and environmental aspects of life (e.g., material, community support) [2]. The testimonies of people who have overcome difficult times have identified how resilience contributes to physical and mental well-being [3]. The present study examines factors associated with resilience, particularly optimism, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and virtue.

Resilience Factors: Optimism, Life Satisfaction, and Self Esteem

Factors associated with resilience have been widely studied as successful adaptability to challenging conditions [4]. One factor is optimism, a trait linked to the propensity to anticipate favorable outcomes in the future, which frequently produces an elevated sense of hopefulness and confidence [5, 6]. Empirical evidence indicates that optimism has positive impacts on both physical and mental health [7–9]. Further in pain study, the more positive mindset undoubtedly improves pain experiences in both clinical and experimental contexts [6]. For instance, in patients with severe musculoskeletal disorders, different forms of cancer, and after surgical operations, optimism has been associated with reduced reports of clinical pain severity and less pain-related interference [7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].

Another protective factor of resilience is life satisfaction, one’s general evaluation of life quality based on their own criteria [15]. Higher life satisfaction is associated with a longer life expectancy, greater disease tolerance, and fewer mental disorders [15]. A longitudinal study of Norwegian medical students by Kjeldstadli et al. [16], revealed that resilience and perceived stress distinguish students with high life satisfaction from those with low or fluctuating levels of life satisfaction. Research on the connections between resilience and life satisfaction reports that a change in resilience over time predicts a change in life satisfaction [17]. According to Frederickson’s [18] broaden and build theory, life satisfaction also increases resilience as positive emotions (e.g., happiness) can broaden thought-action mechanism (i.e., enlarging individuals’ resilience in the face of challenges and adversities).

Self-esteem is another protective factor of resilience. It is often viewed in a continuous dimension ranging from low to high [19], and there is a consensus concerning the association between self-esteem and resilience [20]. According to Oshio et al. [21], students with higher self-esteem are less likely to be affected by stressful conditions, indicating contributory effect of self-esteem in maintaining resilience. More recently, Doyle and Catling [22] explored the relationship between lower self-esteem and resilience and reported that lower self-esteem predisposes negative emotions such as depression and anxiety. Although there are many existing factors associated with resilience, addressing them all goes beyond the scope of the present study. As this study was designed to examine virtue effect in relation to resilience affected by life orientation (i.e., optimism), life satisfaction and self-esteem, the focus of the next section was given to the introduction of virtues studies conducted in the context of resilience.

Emerging Resilience Factor: Virtue

Virtue is an emerging area of study in the context of resilience research. Virtue, in its definition, is one’s pursuit of excellence [23]. According to Peterson and Seligman [24], hope, zest, love, gratitude, and curiosity show a stronger relationship with life satisfaction. In their 2006 study [25] with a sample of people who recovered from illness, they found appreciation of beauty, bravery, curiosity, fairness, forgiveness, gratitude, humor, kindness, love of learning, and spirituality were more prominent as compared to people who have never experienced a serious illness. In a more recent study, a strong relationship was found between virtues and employment-related flourishing [26]. A study with college students by Smith et al. [27], reported that virtues promote life meaning and decrease loneliness. Azanedo et al. [28] also found virtues contribute to personal growth even in a difficult situation, indicating theoretical linkage between virtues and resilience in the context of adaptation to life adversity.

Disability and trauma adaptation is also another area who have developed a unique way of approaching virtue in relation to resilience study. One such approach is Virtue-Based Adaptation Model (V-PAM) [29]. V-PAM explicates one’s resilience (i.e., growth and recovery after the onset of disability) in terms of five virtue constructs, including courage (i.e., ability to make the first step under unclear situations after the onset of trauma and adversities), practical wisdom (i.e., ability to make the best situational decision), integrity (i.e., ability to maintain a relationship with others), committed action (i.e., ability to deliver constant action, not just thinking constantly), and emotional transcendence (i.e., ability to transform adversity experience into insight and hope for future to that it can further motivate constant action). Kim et al. [30] conducted research with more than 200 college students with disabilities. Students were first classified into higher and lower resilience groups based on their resilience score via cluster analysis; their group memberships (i.e., high vs. low resilience) were discriminated against by five V-PAM virtues. The research found that virtues contribute to differentiating one’s resilience. Committed action and emotional transcendence were the strongest contributors followed by courage, practical wisdom, and integrity. Overall, 60% of the total variance of resilience was explained by virtue factors [30]. In 2021, Kim and colleagues [31] replicated their 2018 study with 208 adults with disabilities in the context of adaptation to their disability. Psychosocial adaptation in the study was operationalized in terms of the combined score between the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale [32] and the Satisfaction with Life Scale [33]. Via cluster analysis, participants were categorized into three groups including high, intermediate, and low adaptation groups. Discriminant analysis found that committed action, emotional transcendence, and courage contribute to differentiating one’s psychosocial adaptation level. Authors concluded that the virtue effect in differentiating adaptation and resilience level is replicable [31].

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

While there exists relatively more research on the prediction of resilience based on traditionally well-known protective factors such as optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, relatively less studies explore virtue effect in predicting resilience and it is the aim/purpose of the present study. In other words, in the present study, the prediction of resilience can be strengthened by adding virtue factors in regression model. Research questions were listed below.

Research Question 1: How well does the combination of optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction predict one’s resilience?
Research Question 2: When optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction were controlled, do any virtue variables significantly add anything to the prediction over and above what those three variables contribute?

Participants

The sample consisted of 595 adults recruited from South Korea and completed self-report survey. The inclusion criteria for the sample were age over 20 and reading and writing proficiency in Korean. The participants were 325 males (54.6%) and 270 (45.4%) females. The age of participants ranged from 20 to 59 years. Among the participants, individuals with chronic illness and disabilities (CID) were 18% of the participants. These individuals reported the following functional limitations: mobility-related (26%), communication (3%), self-care (10%), self-direction (10%), interpersonal skills (21%), work tolerance (27%; ability to carry out work tasks in an efficient and effective manner over a sustained period of time), and work skills (4%; job skills required to carry out work functions). 16% reported that they experience several limitations in their physical health due to their illness and disability, and 20% reported that they experience severe mental health issues. Descriptive statistics related to demographic characteristics of research participants were summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

Sample Characteristics
	Frequency	Percent		Frequency	Percent
Gender			Disability Type
Male	325	55	Acquired	5	5
Female	270	45	Congenital	101	95
Total	595	100	Total	106	100
Age			Functional Limitation
20–29	125	21	Mobility	28	26
30–39	164	28	Communication	3	3
40–49	185	31	Self-Care	11	10
50–59	121	20	Self-Direction	11	10
Total	595	100	Interpersonal Skills	22	21
Mental Illness (Self-Identified)			Work Tolerance	27	26
Yes	75	14	Work Skills	4	4
No	520	86	Total	106	100
Total	529	100	Perceived Severity-Physical Health
Chronic Illness and Disability			Mild	51	48
Yes	106	18	Moderate	38	36
No	489	82	Severe	17	16
Total	595	100	Total	106	100
Disability Benefit			Perceived Severity-Mental Health
Yes	13	12	Mild	56	53
No	93	88	Moderate	29	27
Total	106	100	Severe	21	20
Mental Illness (Self-Identified)			Total	106	100
Yes	75	13
No	189	87
Total	595	100

Procedure

The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the study’s affiliated researchers. In addition, the study was conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. This study is based on completion of Online self-report surveys that utilize a firewall (WAF) and secure socket layer (SSL) for its security and encryption. Among a total of 845 participants enrolled in the survey, 72% (n = 608) of participants completed the survey. Cases with insufficient effort responding (“using the same choices repeatedly”; “leaving items unanswered”) were removed because the inclusion of these responses into the dataset can have various unexpected effects on relationships being examined [34, 35]. 595 participants were finally retained. The survey took approximately 30 min to complete, and vouchers worth two dollars were provided to the participants as compensation.

Instruments

Instruments used to operationalize the construct of resilience, optimism, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and virtues were explained below.

Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale

Connor-Davison Resilience Scale (CDRISC) [32] 10-item version was used for the present study. CDRISC items operationalize one’s resilience (e.g., able to adapt to change). Utilizing a 5-point rating scale (0 = not true at all, 4 = true nearly all of the time), a higher score indicates greater resilience. According to normative studies, including factor analyses, CDRISC is a reliable and valid measure with alpha coefficient generally over .80. CDRISC was translated and validated by Shin and colleagues in (2018). In the present sample, the alpha was .92, indicating strong reliability.

Life Orientation Scale – Revised

Life Orientation Scale-Revised by Scheier, Carver & Bridge [36], operationalizes one’s optimism (i.e., the degree of confidence and hope a person believes that the future will turn out positively). It includes six items (i.e., ten items including dummy questions). Among the six items, three of them are reverse questions. LOS-R items were devised based on 5-point Likert scale (0 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree), higher score indicating stronger optimism. Previous study revealed that four-week test-retest reliability was .79, evidencing reliability. LOS-R shows positive correlation to measures of internal locus of control and self-esteem, while it is negatively correlated to measures of hopelessness, depression, stress, and social anxiety [37]. LOS-R was translated and validated by Jo [38]. For the purpose of the present study, three positive statements were used, and the reliability in the given sample was .74, indicating acceptable reliability.

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by Diener et al. [39], includes five-items that measure one’s overall subjective satisfaction on their life, utilizing seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate better life satisfaction. In previous studies, alpha coefficients of SWLS generally ranges from .79 to .89, and test-retest reliability coefficients fall between .54 and.84, indicating very good internal consistency [33]. SWLS is significantly related to a single-item global life satisfaction measure indicating convergent validity [40]. The Korean version of SWLS that was translated and validated by Jo and Cha in 1998 was used for this study, and the alpha coefficient in the given sample .93.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [41] includes ten items that operationalize global self-worth. RSES operationalizes global self-worth. In other words, both positive and negative feelings about the self. Testing items are devised in terms of a 4-point rating scale (1 = strongly agree, 4 = strongly disagree). Korean version of RSES was developed by Jon [42]. In the present study, only five positive statements were included in the study. RSES is a well validated instrument, and it is one of the most widely used assessment tools that measure self-esteem in psychological science [43]. In the given sample, the alpha coefficient was .86, indicating strong reliability.

Adapted Inventory of Virtues and Strengths

AIVS by Kim et al. [30], includes a 46 item that measures five virtues including courage, integrity, practical wisdom, committed action, and emotional transcendence. Utilizing a 7-point semantic differential scale with pairs of opposing adjectives or short phrases anchoring the two extremes (e.g., e.g., coward – bravery), AIVS operationalizes these virtues in terms of corresponding character. AIVS has 5 to 10 minutes of administration time, and polarities of some items are reversed to reduce response-bias. The higher score of each item indicates positive self-perception on their character. Reported alphas of AIVS in previous studies range from .70 to .90, indicating acceptable to strong reliability [29, 30]. Korean version of AIVS published in 2014 by the same primary authors [44] was used for the present study. The alpha coefficients of AIVS factors in the current samples ranged from .78 to .89, indicating strong reliability.

Preliminary Analysis and Correlation Analysis

This study employed correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. Via preliminary analyses, all variables were examined in terms of their distribution, central tendency, and dispersion of the data with skewness (≤|2.0|) and kurtosis (≤|4.0|) at a level not exceeding the standard values. All individual cases met the criterion of responding to more than half of the items in every one of the subscales, and the replacement-with-means method was used to handle any remaining missing values. Statistical procedures were carried out using the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 27. First, correlation analysis was conducted. In regression analysis, variables are supposed to be correlated, but not over .9 as too strong correlation may indicate a multicollinearity issue [45]. Collinearity Statistics were also provided in Table 4, indicating no collinearity issues based on VIF scores. Except for one case between courage and optimism, all correlations were statistically significant and none of them was greater than .9. The result was summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Pearson Correlations between Variables
	RISC	LotR	RSE	SWLS	V_CO	V_IN	V_PW	V_CA	V_ET
RISC	1
LotR	0.17**	1
RSE	0.30**	0.32**	1
SWLS	0.40**	0.15**	0.20**	1
V_CO	0.58**	0.02	0.13**	0.33**	1
V_IN	0.49**	0.09*	0.26**	0.19**	0.28**	1
V_PW	0.61**	0.08*	0.24**	0.26**	0.58**	0.54**	1
V_CA	0.62**	0.14**	0.24**	0.33**	0.51**	0.65**	0.57**	1
V_ET	0.61**	0.09**	0.19**	0.32**	0.50**	0.55**	0.79**	0.65**	1
Note: * p < .05; ** p < .01 RISC: Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale; LotR: Life Orientation Scale-Revised; RSE: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale; V_CO: Courage, V_IN: Integrity; V_PW: Practical Wisdom; V_CA: Committed Action; V_ET: Emotional Transcendence

Hierarchical Regression Analysis

Research questions were examined via hierarchical regression analysis. Using resilience as a dependent variable, in the first stage of regression model, three variables (optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction) were entered to predict resilience. According to the ANOVA table (see Table 3), model 1 result was significant F(3/591) = 51.959, p < .01. Adjusted R² was .205 (see Table 4), meaning that 20.5% of the variance in resilience is explained by the first three variables. However, based on the coefficient table (see Table 5), optimism was not significantly contributing to the prediction of resilience.

In model 2, five virtue factors (courage, practical wisdom, integrity, committed action, and emotional transcendence) were added. The result was also significant at F(8/586) = 94.503, p < .01 (see Table 2) and F change was also significant as indicated in Table 2. Adjusted R² .557 in model 2 means that 55.7% of the total variance of resilience is explained by all eight variables (see Table 4), and R² change of .355 (see Table 4) indicates that adding virtue variables significantly improves the prediction of resilience.

Table 3

ANOVA
Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	48.926	3	16.309	51.959	.000b
	Residual	185.5	591	0.314
	Total	234.426	594
2	Regression	132.063	8	16.508	94.503	.000c
	Residual	102.363	586	0.175
	Total	234.426	594
a Dependent Variable: Resilience
b Predictors: (Constant), SWLS, LotR, RSE
c Predictors: (Constant), SWLS, LotR, RSE, V_IN, V_CO, V_ET, V_CA, V_PW

Table 4

Model Summary
Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	Change Statistics
Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	R Square Change	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
1	.457^a	0.209	0.205	0.56024	0.209	51.959	3	591	0
2	.751^b	0.563	0.557	0.41795	0.355	95.187	5	586	0
a Predictors: (Constant), SWLS, LotR, Self-Esteem
b Predictors: (Constant), SWLS, LotR, Self-Esteem, V_IN, V_CO, V_ET, V_CA, V_PW

Table 5

Coefficient
Model		Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.	Collinearity Statistics
Model		B	Std. Error	Beta	t	Sig.	Tolerance	VIF
1	(Constant)	0.387	0.224		1.728	0.08
	LotR	0.077	0.065	0.046	1.189	0.23	0.887	1.127
	RSE	0.445	0.082	0.214	5.452	0	0.872	1.147
	SWLS	0.168	0.018	0.347	9.247	0	0.952	1.05
2	(Constant)	-1.347	0.192		-7.029	0
	LotR	0.089	0.049	0.053	1.83	0.068	0.874	1.144
	RSE	0.205	0.063	0.099	3.28	0.001	0.824	1.213
	SWLS	0.063	0.015	0.129	4.274	0	0.82	1.219
	V_CO	0.16	0.024	0.246	6.795	0	0.567	1.764
	V_IN	0.076	0.031	0.096	2.494	0.013	0.501	1.994
	V_PW	0.13	0.04	0.157	3.239	0.01	0.318	3.143
	V_CA	0.133	0.031	0.184	4.262	0	0.402	2.489
	V_ET	0.117	0.045	0.126	2.591	0.01	0.317	3.152
a Dependent Variable: Resilience

The primary purpose of the present study was twofold. First, can the combination of self-esteem, optimism, and life satisfaction predict one’s resilience? Second, if so, whether the prediction of resilience can be strengthened by adding virtue factors. Two major findings were listed below, and discussion was elaborated.

The results support current literature regarding the association between protective factors (self-esteem, optimism, life satisfaction) and resilience.
Adding virtue strengthens the overall predictability of the model significantly. In other words, virtue contributes to the prediction of resilience.

Resilience from the Lens of Optimism, Life Satisfaction, and Self-Esteem

Resilience and Optimism

As previously stated, optimism refers to an individual’s positive attitude and hope for the future to overcome difficult situations. It also refers to an individual’s ability to reflect on the positive side of events and utilize available personal and interpersonal resources. The relevance of optimism as a construct of resilience has been documented in various psychological studies [46, 47].

Current literature suggests that optimism has positive impacts on both physical and mental health [7, 9, 48]. Vos et al. [48] online study, of 546 Dutch and Belgian sample examined the relationship between fear of COVID-19, positive personality traits (i.e., optimism, mindfulness, and resilience), and mental health symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress). The findings show that being optimistic, mindful, and resilient was negatively related to experiencing depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Concerning the potential fear-buffering effects of positive personality traits (i.e., optimism, mindfulness, or resilience), they concluded that being optimistic, mindful, and resilient may serve as protective factors for the negative mental health symptoms associated with fear of COVID-19. The Vos et al. [48] study indicates that optimism, mindfulness, and resilience significantly moderated the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and depression, anxiety, and stress. In another, online study, Moody and Smith [49] investigated the effect of protective factors (i.e., social support from friends, social support from family, optimism, reasons for living, and suicide resilience) on suicidal behavior among 133 self-identified transgender adults. Social support from friends, social support from family, and optimism significantly and negatively estimated the participants’ suicidal behavior. Optimism is also linked with better health-related outcomes and coping with negative life events [7, 9, 48]. These studies indicate that resilience has a protective effect on the negative mental health outcomes of stressful life events [48].

However, the present study provides two perspectives. First, in that the 1st prediction model is statistically significant (see Table 2; F(8/585) = 94.503, p = 0), our findings are in line with previous studies examining the effects of optimism, mindfulness, or resilience on coping with adverse life events. However, according to Coefficient Table (Table 4) p = .023, the result shows that optimism in the present study does not directly contribute to the prediction of resilience. This finding was unexpected in that previous studies in psychology and mental health have reported optimism and resilience as important personality traits or protective factors in promoting positive mental health outcomes after experiencing a challenging life event such as a chronic illness or disability [5, 8, 10, 50]. This can be because of the way optimism was conceptualized and operationalized in cultural context, especially in South Korea. For example, in measuring the construct of optimism, only selected questions were used from the optimism scale. The change in the optimism scale may introduce validation errors. Another explanation is that optimism can be understood by Koreans differently from Westerners, and qualities inquiry may be needed for a culture-specific framing.

Resilience and Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is a psychological element that could improve the resilience process. Self-esteem is a general sense of one’s worth, such that individuals with high self-esteem are characterized as having high levels of self-respect and self-worth, whereas individuals with low self-esteem are thought to consider themselves as unworthy and inadequate. Self-esteem is like a psychological barometer that measures how highly one is regarded by others, according to the sociometer theory [51]. Positive opinions of oneself imply that individuals feel that they are accepted and well-valued by others.

Self-esteem has also been associated with resilience in individuals with physical disabilities. For example, Hayter and Dorstyn [52] Australia study among ninety-seven adults with a diagnosis of spina bifida examined factors that may enhance and promote resilience. They completed a survey comprising demographic questions in addition to self-report measures of physical functioning, resilience, self-esteem, self-compassion, and psychological distress. The results indicated that moderate levels of resilient coping were identified, with both medical and psychological variables impacting the resilience process. Even though individuals with spinal bifida experience multiple challenges, a significant number reported positive emotional adjustment. This finding mirrors what other studies have reported that resilience is the most common response to adversity among physical disability groups, evidenced by stable, healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning, including the capacity for positive emotions [53, 54]. Results of the present study reconfirm that self-esteem and self-compassion are associated with resilience and are in support of what previous studies have established, that is the strong relationship [55, 56].

Resilience and Life Satisfaction

Life satisfaction (LS) is becoming an increasingly crucial aspect of subjective well-being by El-Genady & Wahab [15]. Positive affectivity, negative affectivity, and life satisfaction are three important components of subjective well-being. Positive and negative affectivity dimensions consist of pleasurable and unpleasant emotions, whereas life satisfaction incorporates an individual's cognitive assessment of life [57]. Life satisfaction is strongly associated with personality traits, and engaging in physical or mental activities tends to make individuals' life satisfaction more stable and long-lasting [58, 59]. LS substantially impacts health and happiness, and a higher LS is associated with a longer life expectancy, greater disease tolerance, and fewer mental disorders [15].

Resilience not only serves as a predictor but also as a mediator between positive emotions and life satisfaction. Rutten et al. [60] proposed that there are three domains that determine an individual's resilience: attachment style, positive emotions, and a sense of life's purpose. In addition, evidence begins to point to the utility of positive emotions in enhancing mental health, accelerating the speed of psychological recovery from negative events, and reducing the negative effects individuals report following adverse events. Thus, positive affect may help individuals experience less intense negative emotions, and when they do experience negative emotions, they recover more quickly than those with a lower positive affect [61]. According to Nemati and Maralani [62], research indicates that some resilient individuals, after facing difficult life situations, return to their normal level of functioning, while others, after facing failures, catastrophes, or difficulties, improve regarding the past; this state can be influenced by cognition and the positive evaluation of life quality by the individual. According to Kumpfer [63], resiliency plays a significant role in returning to the initial balance or achieving a higher level of balance, and thus it contributes to positive compatibility and life satisfaction.

Positive compatibility and life satisfaction can be viewed as outcomes of resiliency and, as motivators, can also lead to a higher level of resiliency; this issue is a result of the complexity of the definition and the process-oriented view of resiliency [62]. Momentary experiences of positive emotions fuel growth and change over time, aiding in the development of resources, skills for recognizing opportunities, and resiliency. Moreover, global life satisfaction can increase when an individual experience positive emotions and employs such resources to meet life's challenges and opportunities [64]. In addition, the difference in positive emotions explains why people are better able to overcome adversity and stress, avoid depression, and continue to grow [64–67].

Resilience from a Virtue Perspective

V-PAM is an emerging counseling framework that explains psychosocial adaptation to life adversity. The model was introduced in the field of clinical rehabilitation counseling. Since its first inception in 2015, the application of the model has been growing. The second purpose of the present study was to test whether resilience can be better predicted with virtue factors. Results showed that the total variance of resilience explained by the models was significantly improved from 21–56% (see Table 3, Adjusted R² change from model 1 to model 2). V-PAM includes five virtues (i.e., wisdom, courage, integrity, committed action, and emotional transcendence) and discussion on each virtue construct in relation to the prediction of resilience was elaborated in this section.

Courage and Resilience

In definition, courage is one’s capacity to face fear. Fear confronts a person in various ways, and the relationship between fear, courage, and resilience can be well explained in the fear-avoidance model. According to the fear-avoidance model, increased anticipation of fear stimulates the vicious cycle of avoidance behaviors. For example, high anticipation of pain or reinjury, fear in other words, leads to inactivity, thus contributing to greater disability [68]. Additionally, the model notes that escape/avoidance behaviors such as withdrawing from daily activities may create more significant problems [69].

Courage is a critical factor in breaking fear-avoidance cycles. From Adler’s perspective [70], fear is more than an emotion, and it contributes to inferiority, a basic feeling of inadequacy and insecurity, deriving from actual or imagined physical or psychological deficiency. These feelings can be a source of psychopathogenic ideas. They may develop an inferiority complex that drives an individual to use deficient practices for benefit, such as excuses and malingering. Dreikurs [70] states that inferiority is a “deadlock for further development” as fear can dominate our thoughts, emotions, and behavior when it outweighs the problems, hindering forward movement (p.45).

Fear, however, does not always mean it will harm an individual [71]. When an individual harbors fear directly towards something, being able to overcome this limitation for the benefit of themselves or others is assumed to arise from courage [72–74]. The American Psychological Association [75] defines courage as “the ability to meet a difficult challenge despite the physical, psychological, or moral risks involved” (para. 1). Courage is also known as bravery and valor (American Psychological Association, n.d.). During high levels of fear, reaching goals may take certain degrees of value; therefore, taking action to overcome such adversities is courageous in nature [74].

Personal courage may emerge in various situations, such as saving someone at risk or removing oneself from a dangerous situation. Courage can also assist in coping with chronic illness and disability, overcoming destructive habits, or speaking one’s mind. Through courage, people gain the necessary power to act despite the fears associated with chronic illness and disability [30]. Thus, bravery was one of the strengths that were the most strongly associated with resilience [76]. Courage and resilience go hand in hand since courage enables a person to stay firm while enduring hardship.

Wisdom and Resilience

According to Yang, Milliren, and Blagen [77], it is the wisdom that differentiate “true courage from the semblance of courageous act” (p. 10) as true courage requires an evaluation of the situation. Wisdom is often defined as immense amount of knowledge and experience about their own existence and the value of life; thus, it is often studied in relation to mental health, well-being, and protective factor of human resilience [78]. According to Kutuk et al. [79], resilience is one’s ability to cope with challenging situations and utilizing our best judgments to make appropriate decisions when faced with life adversities. They further stated that “wisdom increases, flexible thinking, empathy, and coping skill” (p.3), allowing an individual to obtain healthy problem-solving skills that assist in not only making appropriate decisions but can also improve their ability to be more resilient when faced with life's adversities.

In another study, Bang and Collet [80] conducted a mixed method study analyzing the positive effect of wisdom has on refugee students’ ability to be resilient after traumatic experience. Refugee students are a marginalized group often faced with trauma such as war, abuse, and/or psychosocial challenges [81, 82]. Their finding was that “the higher reflective wisdom one has, the less PTSD symptoms as well as higher resilience one might show” [80], concluding that self-help techniques utilizing reflective wisdom can be beneficial for persons diagnosed with physical or mental disorders obstructing their autonomy and ability to function.

Studies have shown that wisdom is made up of the following five components: “(a) social decision making and pragmatic knowledge of life; (b) prosocial attitudes and values; (c) reflection and self-understanding; (d) acknowledgment of and coping with uncertainty; and (e) emotional homeostasis” [83, 84]. Byra [85] stated that individuals can obtain wisdom as they continue aging and by firsthand experiences such as adjusting to life after acquiring a disability. This is a perfect illustration of how a person can gain a better understanding as to why they may have been faced with difficulties. In continuation, wisdom is a skill in which the affective, reflective, and cognitive dimensions assist individuals in gaining awareness and knowledge of the unknown to properly be prepared for life’s difficulties [79].

Integrity and Resilience

Integrity is defined as one’s ability to act genuinely and sincerely consistent with one’s moral and ethical standards [30]. In turn, this integrity, which is a primary determinant of trust, promotes healthy inter- and intrapersonal relationships [86]. Integrity is a virtue associated with honesty and moral principles. Thus, in the context of psychosocial adaptation to life adversity, integrity is particularly important in terms of building harmonious relationships with others in support system, for example, family members and medical and health professionals [31]. From an Adlerian perspective, integrity promotes social connectedness with others, contributing to the overall well-being of individuals [87].

In various literature, social connectedness is a key predictor of resilience. Nitschke et al. [88] examined the importance of social connection during the COVID-19 lockdown period. With a sample of 981 individuals, the relationship between social connection and perceived stress and fatigue. Results revealed that the greater social connectedness is, the lower perceived stress and COVID related worries are, indicating resilience can be promoted via communal aspects of human relationships. Collaboration toward a complementary pursuit motivates people to work together, creating a sense of connectedness by Kim et al. [31], which can support adjustment and adaptation to life adversities. Resilience can be recognized during immense hardships that expand one’s level of coping [89]. For example, as one migrates to the adaptation of an acquired disability, people who have the ability to withstand the challenges can push things through with a positive attitude. During the adaptation, their feelings are kept stable, and calm followed by determination, endurance and eventually finding the capacity to commemorate their achievements.

According to Erickson, the last psychosocial stage is Integrity [90]. This stage is encompassed with accepting the ups and downs of life. Individuals with integrity reflect on their experiences as they want their behaviors to follow their word. When a positive outlook is established, individuals can experience a feeling of integrity within themselves and allows them to understand downfalls in life and accept challenges and adversities as a part of their life. Constructing resilience is maintaining or conserving one’s integrity during distress [91] and presenting a positive outlook to decrease the harmful influence of life adversities. Results of the present study reassure the importance of integrity in predicting resilience.

Committed Action and Resilience

Resilience is strongly associated with psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility is defined as being present-focused while acting successfully and consistently with one's ideals while contending with competing thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations [92]. McCracken [93] asserts that psychological flexibility is the ability to persist or to change behavior in a setting of competing psychological influences, guided by goals and dependent on what the situation at hand affords. The capacity to acknowledge and accept challenging feelings and experiences plays a significant role in psychological flexibility.

Another mechanism supporting psychological flexibility is the concept of committed action. Committed action is goal-directed, adaptable persistence that enables people to live a life based on their values [93]. Committed action is one aspect of psychological flexibility that seems relevant to chronic pain in that committed action is flexible persistence with a goal in mind. Beyond just experiencing pain and accepting it, committed action, as measured in studies on chronic pain, predicts psychological health and vitality.

Constant values-based behavior is a key to committed action. There is evidence to suggest that committed action is a value-based long-term action. For example, Kim et al. [30] study of resilience among 256 college students with chronic illnesses and disabilities (CID) and applied the virtue-based psychosocial adaptation model (V-PAM) to understand adaptation to chronic illness and disability. The results revealed that students with CID can be categorized in line with their resilience levels (e.g., high or low resilient). The first group showed lower resilience and life satisfaction, whereas the second showed higher resilience and life satisfaction.

Emotional Transcendence and Resilience

In a breast cancer study, resilient women showed better post-cancer development and growth, indicating relationship between resilience and transcendence [94]. This process in counseling is called transcendence. A person who reaches transcendence can find meaning and purpose in their life even in adverse situations such as chronic illness or disabilities. Reed [95] states that the virtue of transcendence is related to the perception of reality that goes beyond the person and their environment as a recognition of the exterior world and other individuals. On the other hand, transcendence means that a person possesses a level of awareness that has passed their boundaries, reaching a level of maturity with a significant broad perspective, introspection, discovery of meaning, and a sense of well-being [96]. In other words, the process of emotional transcendence helps individuals cultivate their ability to reach a level of awareness, auto exploration, identification of past experiences that had helped them when they needed to confront adversity, and recognition of strategies used before that can be used in their present. Thus, according to virtue-based psychosocial adaptation model, emotional transcendence is one’s ability to transform adversity experience into insight and future renewal [29]. This is the process of internal exploration concerning meaning and purpose findings of their lives to continuously withstand adversity [94].

The virtue of transcendence is essential for an individual to be able to reach resilience. Resilience is critical to confront the adversity of challenging events. As noted above, transcending process helps individuals identify their strengths and lived experience that will help them bounce back from the challenges they confront in the present and future. Wei [97] refers to transcendence as objectifying individual consciousness and focusing on the cognitive processes of experiencing, understanding, and deciding. In 2021, Reischer et al. [98] studied meaning-finding process from their past, present, and future. The common characteristics of the participants that experienced high levels of transcendence were related to a process of personal growth and self-actualization over time with a focus on their potential, continuous learning, open mindset, sense of humanity, and psychological development. Lohne et al. [25] explored individuals’ experience with spinal cord injury (SCI). With the onset of SCI, all of them experienced hospitalization, significant loss of mobility, and several surgeries, and all of these were happening very quickly. All individuals demonstrated elevated instability and expressed feelings of losing control over their lives as, with the onset of disability, their life became uncertain. However, some individuals with SCI demonstrate characteristics and behaviors that help them to infuse hope and reconstruct their disability experience in a positive way. Further, findings revealed that those who overcame adversity showed a different level of motivation and action to reach their goal and reported that a key factor in overcoming disability is to have a resilient mindset developed via the reflection and introspection.

Individuals that can positively overcome adversity demonstrate experience of some factors that pertain to emotional cultivation. Identifying elements of action and determination, developing inner growth, using reflection, and learning from lived experiences promote life thriving. Emotional transcendence stimulates resilience and assists individuals in adapting to their life adversity [99]. Having a positive mindset, practicing positive reflection skills, and constructively interpreting events are key to transforming challenges into new insights and infusing hope for the future [100].

The purpose of the present study was to examine virtue effect in predicting resilience. The initial regression model was established to predict resilience based on one’s optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Then, five virtues (i.e., courage, integrity, practical wisdom, committed action, and emotional transcendence) were added to determine whether virtues factors can improve prediction. In the first regression model, the total variance of resilience explained by model 1 was 21%, confirming replicability of existing literature, although there is room for improvement especially about optimism effect as noted above. In model 2, virtue factors were added, and the total variance of resilience explained the regression model was improved from 21–56%), indicating virtues effect in predicting resilience. Virtues are new in counseling, and many virtue-related studies were examined in terms of character traits. This research is unique in that it investigated virtues such as courage, integrity, practical wisdom, committed action, and emotional transcendence, which have traditionally been viewed as moral and philosophical, through the lens of empirical research. In addition, the findings necessitate additional research into the virtue effect in the context of resilience and adjustment to life's challenges.

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of SungKyunKwan University to which the researchers are affiliated [SKKU 2015-01-006-020], and all methods were carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants with a detailed survey orientation, including the purpose and procedures of this study. All participants were informed that the information they provided would remain private and confidential, and they could withdraw from the study should they feel any discomfort during the survey.

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

The data used in the present study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2021S1A3A2A02089682)

Authors' contributions

Jeong Han Kim conducted the literature search and the statistical analysis, wrote the first draft of the paper, and edited the final version. Kayi Ntinda conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Elaine Mora conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Analynn Salinas conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Gabriela Rangel conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Jacqueline Mercado Lopez conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Tori Livingston conducted the literature search and contributed to the development of introduction and discussion sections. Dong Hun Lee was the Principal Investigator, designed this study, collected data, supervised statistical analysis, provided review and feedback on the paper, and gave expert opinions on the subject. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

Not Applicable

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Resilience through the Lens of Optimism, Self-Esteem, Life Satisfaction, and Virtues: Hierarchical Regression Analysis

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Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Introduction

Resilience Factors: Optimism, Life Satisfaction, and Self Esteem

Emerging Resilience Factor: Virtue

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

Methods

Participants

Procedure

Instruments

Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale

Life Orientation Scale – Revised

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Adapted Inventory of Virtues and Strengths

Results

Preliminary Analysis and Correlation Analysis

Hierarchical Regression Analysis

Discussion

Resilience from the Lens of Optimism, Life Satisfaction, and Self-Esteem

Resilience and Optimism

Resilience and Self-Esteem

Resilience and Life Satisfaction

Resilience from a Virtue Perspective

Courage and Resilience

Wisdom and Resilience

Integrity and Resilience

Committed Action and Resilience

Emotional Transcendence and Resilience

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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