Drinking water quality is a significant public health issue in various low economic and other underdeveloped nations due to the high prevalence of diarrheal diseases33. In Nepal, Myagdi district is demonstrated to have the highest prevalence of diarrhoea in previous years34. Since access to safe drinking water is essential for human growth, health, and wellbeing, it is recognized as a fundamental human right35. The microbiological contaminants typically have direct effects on health as opposed to the long-term consequences of chemical contamination, chemical contaminants in drinking water are frequently given less importance than microbial contaminants.
However, contaminants in water sources can lead to very serious issues. Health risks related to any chemical for which a World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation has been published, which theoretically can be assessed at the national or municipal level36. These assessments may be used to manage the chemical risks to the security of the water supply through the controlling and monitoring programmes of national standards for drinking-water quality. However, it would be impractical and extremely resource-intensive to conduct such assessments and create management strategies for every chemical, which would be a challenge for many countries37.
Water quality is dependent on a variety of chemical components, which are primarily obtained from the geological data of the specific place38. Industrial waste and municipal solid waste have emerged as one of the leading causes of pollution of surface and groundwater39. Due to excessive amount of heavy metal present, the water that is available in many areas of the country is no longer potable5. During the summers water shortages and precipitation runoff contribute to the worsening of the issue40. One of the primary health issues is the heavy metal, metal ion, and microbial contamination of water supplies used for drinking and for home reasons41. According to a study conducted in Haryana (India), the poor quality of ground water is being caused by excessive exploration and subsequent recharge, inappropriate dumping of solid and liquid wastes, lax law enforcement, and poor governance42. In developing nations' urban centers, the majority of rivers are the final destinations of industrial wastewater discharges43. Environmental conservation is challenging in Asia and Africa due to the rapid industrial growth in these regions44.
So, in the present study we attempted to assess the physiochemical parameters of ground water (Spring and Handpump) available for drinking in the Kargil District of the Ladakh UT, India. Here, we have discussed each case separately for better and clear understanding.
Silmoo (Gongma Ranthak Lakha) Spring water:
In case of the water samples collected from Silmoo (Gongma Ranthak Lakha) Spring, out of the 10 parameters, the values of the 8 parameters were reported to be within the limits of international standards (Table 1). Only magnesium concentration was reported higher (82.54mg/L) and water temperature was reported lower than the normal limit (Table 1). However as per BIS (2012), the permissible limit for Magnesium in the absence of alternative source is 100mg/L, so again the values of Magnesium (Mg) reported in the Silmoo (Gongma Ranthak Lakha) Spring water is within permissible limit. The literature reveals various health benefits of higher Mg concentration in the drinking water. Various researchers have reported that intake of water with higher values of Mg results in healthier muscle with better performing potential (Seelig, 2003). Mg also reported to help in efficient blood and oxygen circulation in different parts of the body45. So, the high concentration of Mg in the drinking water (100mg per day in take) is also attributed to reduction in cardiovascular disease risk45. So, drinking Silmoo (Gongma Ranthak Lakha) Spring water is not only safe however it is healthier too. The possible reasons for low water temperature of the Silmoo (Gongma Ranthak Lakha) Spring water is due to climatic and geographic conditions of the Ladakh. Ladakh is also known as cold desert46, so water temperature in the last week of October 2022 was 7.5°C and it is considered quite normal, as this region gets cold waves and snow during the autumn and winters47.
In past various peoples have assesses the quality of spring water, here we have discussed only some cases studies. Odeyemi et al.48 studied the physicochemical parameters of Awedele spring water (Ado Ekiti, Nigeria) and reported minimal turbidity the collected spring water samples when compared to the BIS standard values. They have also reported water samples with slightly acidic pH, and modest levels of TDS, DO, total hardness, and alkalinity. Talabi49 investigated the quality of Spring Waters of Ikogosi and reported higher pH values in the cold spring water than the warm spring, indicating that hydrogen ions (H+) are more readily available or active there. Singh et al.50 assessed the spring water quality of five springs of the Srinagar valley in district Pauri Garhwal and reported change in the electrical conductivity of the water samples due to sewage contamination, fertilizer inputs, and adjacent rock ions, In contrast, variations in DO are influenced by temperature, chloride levels, and hardness levels. Seasonal changes and sewage leaching also cause variations in nitrite readings and nitrogen compound content. Laafou et al.51 studied the Springs Water in Sebt Jahjouh Area (El-Hajb, Morocco) collected from 9 springs and reported four water samples (S1, S2, S5, and S8) with nitrate concentrations above 50 mg/L, which may have an effect on consumers' health. In contrast, the other five (S3, S4, S6, S7, and S9) showed water that was suitable for drinking and household use. Rutanga52 evaluated the spring water quality at Gikonod Industrial Park in Kigali, Rwanda, and found that the water was corrosive and beyond the allowable limits due to low pH, high turbidity, and chloride levels. Haile Reda53 studied the physiochemical parameters of Spring Water of Arbaminch, Ethiopia and reported high level of alkalinity and fluoride in spring water sample locations, beyond the acceptable standards (WHO and Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON)), magnesium levels were low, making the water appropriate for drinking and domestic usage. Shigut et al.6 studied the quality of borehole water and spring water supplied to Robe Town, Oromia region, Ethiopia and their study highlighted the preference for spring water quality in Robe Town and the necessity for authorities to take measures to improve water quality, even though the majority of physico-chemical parameters in the spring and borehole water sources comply with drinking water guidelines. However, pH, iron, and manganese levels in the borehole sources exceeded limits. Abduljabar et al analyzed the physiochemical properties of the Spring Water Sources in Amediye, Kurdistan, Iraq and suggested most parameters of the springs met WHO standards, however the level of total hardness (TH), Ca2+, Mg2+ exceeded the acceptable limits. Ignatov54 investigated the quality of Spring Waters in Bulgaria and reported the spring water as safe for drinking as no significant change in physicochemical properties of water was recorded. However, no one studied physiochemical analysis of spring water from Kargil, Ladakh, to the best of our knowledge this is the first report of such studies.
In literature there are various studies on the physiochemical analysis of groundwater (handpump) water, here we have overviewed some of the key studies.
GM Pore handpump Water:
In case of GM Pore handpump water, out of the 10 selected physico-chemical parameters, six parameters viz. Colour, pH, Conductivity, Total hardness, Calcium concentration and Magnesium concentration were reported to fall within in the limits as suggested by Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) acceptable and permissible limits32 and World Health Organization (WHO) Standard Value55. The GM Pore handpump water was reported to have slight variation in four parameters viz. taste, ordour, temperature and turbidity compared to the permissible limits. The bitter taste of the collected handpump water is usually attributes to the pH level, higher TDS levels, or excess minerals56. In our case we have not determined TDS. So, higher TDS value might be the reason of bitter taste in the water sample. The colour, smell, and taste of the water from some of the handpumps prevented it from being suitable for consumption. The majority of consumers lack the ability to judge. The components of water quality that people are able to sense with their senses will have a significant impact on their perception of the safety of water as well as their attitude towards drinking water and drinking water supplies57. Despite the fact that these qualities may not directly affect health, it is normal for consumers to be aware of water that seems dirty, is discoloured, or has an unpleasant taste or odour58. Aside from being filthy, polluted water is also dangerous59. In case of water temperature, as GM Pore is located in Ladakh. Ladakh is also called as cold desert because of its geographical and environmental factor. So, it to its temperature freezes during winters and we have collected samples in last week of October 2022, that might be reason for the low temperature of our collected water samples. In our study, we have reported higher turbidity of the collected handpump water samples (11.42±0.32 TNU). The possible reason for high value turbidity might be due to the presence of clay or slit particles suspended in water60.
In literature, various reports on the physiochemical analysis of handpump/borehole water are available. Some of the important studies are discussed here for understanding the quality of the handpump/borehole water. Saravanakumar and Kumar61 evaluated the groundwater quality of the Ambattur industrial sector of Chennai City's collected from 10 locations and reported enhanced total dissolved solids, hardness, and decreased oxygen solubility, the results show substantial contamination, posing health risks for human usage. Hanumantharao et al.62 studied physicochemical properties of 48 samples of groundwater sources (Deep wells and handpumps) collected from 24 villages of Kandukur, Andhra Pradesh and reported majority of samples have most of the parameters above the permissible limit, and concluded the water unsafe for irrigation and drinking. They also suggested to address changes in groundwater quality, routine surveillance is crucial. Parihar et al.63 investigated the water quality of 16 water samples (11 handpump water samples and 5 municipality water samples) collected from different locations in Gwalior, MP, India and reported majority of samples unfit for drinking due to high TDS and microbiological concentrations. Khan et al.60 studied the physicochemical characteristics of 39 water samples, collected from different groundwater sources (domestic tube well (DTW), open well (OW); hand pump (HP)) of Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan and reported various samples did not meet WHO/Pakistan criteria. They concluded, quality of the water was damaged by geological strata, garbage sources, and ageing distribution networks.
Srilatha et al.64 studied radon and physicochemical characteristics of groundwater samples (hand pumps and bore wells) collected from Ramanagara and Tumkur districts, Karnataka, India and reported radon concentration in the range from 2.96±0.89 Bq L-1 to 299.06±6.98 Bq L-1 . They have recorded electrical conductivity, nitrate, and fluoride values above the permissible limits. Fluoride and radon revealed a positive association, although chloride and sulphate showed only marginally negative relationships. They have concluded in their study that nearly 40% of the study region, the yearly effective dosage surpassed the WHO acceptable limit. A study65 evaluated the water quality of 11 hand pumps water samples collected from Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan and recorded the physical-chemical characteristics of most of the samples complied with WHO recommendations. However, they have reported higher values of electrical conductivity only two samples. They document the water best for agricultural use and appropriate for human use and suggest sanitation and good waste management as two important safeguards for water quality. Gagan et al.66 studied the impact of industrial effluents on groundnut and surface water samples collected from Dhampur region, Uttar Pradesh, India and reported the cleaned industrial effluents improved the surface water, however, both severe and mild contamination made groundwater unsafe for drinking. To reduce health concerns, urgent water quality control is necessary.
From the Kargil region, no such study is reported. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first report from the Kargil on the physiochemical analysis of GM Pore Handpump water.