4.1 Socio-Economic Livelihood Features of the Chattogram City Dwellers
Table 2 provides an overview of the profiles of respondents from various livelihood indicators among the residents of Chattogram City. These indicators encompass socio-economic status, occupation and income, housing and land situation, and food security. The examination of socio-economic conditions reveals that the majority of respondents fell within the age range of 30-40 years (49%), with only 8% being aged 60 and above. It's noteworthy that respondents aged below 30 years were excluded from this study to ensure the collection of relevant tidal inundation information. Around 20% of the families in this study were headed by females. Among the city dwellers in Chattogram, 63% reported having 4-6 family members, aligning with the national average family size of Bangladesh (4.92). The study area exhibited a high literacy rate, with approximately 15% being illiterate. Notably, 40% of respondents had completed primary education (higher than the national average of 59.09% and urban areas' rate of 70.87%), and notably, 86.6% of respondents had school- or college-going family members. Concerning the health status of household members, a significant number of respondents (39%) reported facing problems related to tidal inundation impacts.
The outcomes concerning occupation and income revealed that the largest segment of respondents held diverse occupations (32.1%), encompassing roles such as housewives, farmers, students, unemployed individuals, mechanics, and foreign migrants. The second-largest group consisted of businessmen (28%). Half of the respondents reported a monthly income ranging between Taka 16,000 to 30,000 (US$ 200-375), while the highest monthly income exceeded Taka 30,000 (above US$ 375). A substantial portion, around 70%, of respondents, reported monthly expenditures within the range of Taka 5,000 to 10,000 (US$ 62.5-125). Regarding housing and land characteristics, the study encompassed ownership status, housing structure type, and the resilience of housing against tidal inundation. Analysis of housing conditions (Table 2) revealed that the majority (60.5%) of respondents in the study area were renters, while 37.9% were homeowners. In terms of housing structure, half of the respondents (50%) occupied semi-pucca buildings with tin roofs, 37.6% resided in cemented (pucca) structures, 10% dwelled in structures made of tin/wood/bamboo, and the remaining houses included thatched and other types. More than 95% of respondents were living in houses that were able to withstand tidal inundation, yet 98% of their homes had experienced some form of damage due to such inundation. Findings concerning food security indicated that almost 95% of respondents consumed regular meals, with 77.6% having three meals per day. Around 10.8% faced occasional food security issues within a month, while 77.6% did not encounter any food-related problems.
Table. 2 Respondents’ Profile
Livelihood Feature
|
Categories
|
Average
|
Socio-economic Condition
|
Gender
|
Male
|
79.7
|
Female
|
20.3
|
Age
|
30-40
|
48.9
|
41-50
|
28.4
|
51-60
|
14.7
|
61-70
|
7.9
|
Family Size
|
1-3
|
23.2
|
4-6
|
62.9
|
7-9
|
11.1
|
10-12
|
2.9
|
Education Qualification
|
No Education
|
15.5
|
Primary
|
39.5
|
Secondary School Certificate (SSC)
|
16.1
|
Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC)
|
6.8
|
Graduate and above
|
22.1
|
School/college-going members in a family
|
Yes
|
86.6
|
No
|
13.4
|
Health condition of household members
|
Good
|
29.2
|
Long term illness
|
30.8
|
Disable
|
.5
|
Both
|
.5
|
Tidal inundation-related problem
|
38.9
|
Occupation and income
|
Occupation
|
Day Labour
|
8.9
|
Service
|
17.4
|
Businessmen
|
28.1
|
Self-employee
|
13.5
|
Others
|
32.1
|
Monthly Income (Tk.)
|
6000-15000
|
15.79
|
16000-25000
|
34.21
|
26000-35000
|
26.32
|
36000-45000
|
7.10
|
46000-55000
|
16.58
|
Average yearly expenditure amount
(TK.)
|
6000-10000
|
69.2
|
11000-15000
|
20.8
|
16000-20000
|
4.2
|
21000-25000
|
1.8
|
26000-30000
|
2.1
|
31000-35000
|
1.8
|
Housing and land
|
The ownership status
|
Owned
|
37.9
|
Rented
|
60.5
|
Living free with neighbors/relatives
|
.5
|
Others(Please specified
|
1.1
|
Type of housing structure
|
Cemented Building (Pacca)
|
37.6
|
Semi-pucca building with Tin roof
|
49.5
|
Thatched House
|
1.1
|
Tin/Wood/Bamboo
|
10.0
|
Others (Please specified)
|
1.8
|
Living house withstand tidal inundation
|
Yes
|
96.6
|
No
|
1.8
|
|
with minor damage
|
1.6
|
Food Security Profile
|
Food Security
|
Once
|
.3
|
Twice
|
22.1
|
Thrice
|
77.6
|
Month
|
Face problem in 1 month
|
10.8
|
Face problem in 2 month
|
8.7
|
Face problem in 3 month
|
2.9
|
No problem (food available)
|
77.6
|
4.2 Tidal Inundation and its Impacts on the Livelihoods of the Chattogram City Dwellers
The study revealed the existence of 29 indicators significantly impacted by tidal inundation. These impacts were subsequently ranked based on the outcomes of the Weighted Average Index (WAI), as presented in Table 3. Mean scores (WA) illustrating the vulnerability of livelihoods were provided in Table 4. The results underscored that "increased poverty in the community" stood as the most severe impact, followed by the impact of "solving difficulties during disasters." Additionally, challenges confronted by older individuals, pregnant women, disabled individuals, and children, and difficulties experienced during emergencies (such as public exams, official meetings, and medical treatments) ranked third in intensity. The fourth-ranking impact pertained to "impacting public exams (PSC/JSC/SSC/HSC) and feelings of insecurity," while "physical disability due to tidal inundation" secured the fifth position in terms of its influence on the livelihoods of the study area's residents. Subsequent impacts, ranked sixth through twenty-six, encompassed various facets, including the displacement of relatives, neighbors, and community members to other locations; forced displacement of households; absence of loan facilities from NGOs; gradual infrastructure problems; a sense of increased social distance; psychological disabilities stemming from tidal inundation; extended durations for day-to-day activities; challenges encountered in commuting to offices and workplaces; difficulties in reaching schools/colleges during inundation; disruption of total class hours; decreased water quality; sanitation system degradation; damage to educational institutions; reduced cooking facilities; efforts to motivate others in addressing challenges; heightened food insecurity among households; engagement of local people in illegal practices; feelings of helplessness during tidal inundation; unemployment; and shifts in household occupation patterns.
Table 3. Ranking of the impacts of the tidal inundation on the livelihoods of the Chattogram city dwellers
Impacts Profile
|
WAI
|
Rank
|
Increased poverty in the community
|
5.38
|
1
|
Solve it by myself during difficulties (Disaster)
|
5.35
|
2
|
Challenges faced by older people, pregnant women, disabled people, and children
|
5.31
|
3
|
Challenges face in emergencies (Public exam/ Official meeting/treatment)
|
5.31
|
3
|
Impacting public exam (PSC/JSC/SSC/HSC)
|
5.30
|
4
|
Feel insecurity
|
5.30
|
4
|
Physical disability because of tidal inundation
|
5.22
|
5
|
Relatives, neighbors, and community people move to another place
|
5.16
|
6
|
Forced to the displacement of the HHs
|
5.15
|
7
|
No loan facility from NGOs
|
5.14
|
8
|
Creating problems in infrastructure gradually
|
5.13
|
9
|
Feel social distance
|
5.06
|
10
|
Psychology disability because of tidal inundation
|
5.04
|
11
|
Day-to-day activities are consuming extra hours
|
5
|
12
|
Facing problems while going to the office and working places
|
4.95
|
13
|
Facing problems while going to school/college during inundation
|
4.92
|
14
|
Total class hours are affected
|
4.85
|
15
|
Impeding proper transportation systems gradually
|
4.82
|
16
|
Spending extra payment for capital
|
4.82
|
16
|
The quality of water decreased
|
4.72
|
17
|
Creating problems in the sanitation system gradually
|
4.7
|
18
|
Educational institutions are damaged by tidal inundation
|
4.57
|
19
|
Cooking facilities have been decreased
|
4.44
|
20
|
Motivated others to solve these difficulties
|
4.27
|
21
|
Created food insecurity among the HHs
|
4.21
|
22
|
People in our locality were involved in illegal practices
|
3.96
|
23
|
Feel helpless during tidal inundation
|
3.89
|
24
|
Did not find any job/work
|
3.88
|
25
|
changed
|
3.83
|
26
|
Table. 4 Livelihood Vulnerability Profile
Impacts Profile
|
6
|
5
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
1
|
Total Calculation[1]
|
Mean Score[2]
|
Physical disability because of tidal inundation
|
166
|
187
|
0
|
0
|
26
|
1
|
1984
|
5.22
|
Psychology disability because of tidal inundation
|
157
|
180
|
0
|
0
|
33
|
10
|
1918
|
5.04
|
Facing problems while going to school/college during
inundation
|
100
|
243
|
0
|
0
|
19
|
18
|
1871
|
4.92
|
Educational institutions are damaged by tidal inundation
|
117
|
174
|
0
|
0
|
78
|
11
|
1739
|
4.57
|
Total class hours are affected
|
130
|
193
|
0
|
0
|
42
|
15
|
1844
|
4.85
|
Day-to-day activities are consuming extra hours
|
114
|
229
|
0
|
0
|
35
|
2
|
1901
|
5.00
|
Facing problems while going to the office and working places
|
102
|
238
|
0
|
0
|
40
|
0
|
1882
|
4.95
|
The quality of water decreased
|
160
|
132
|
0
|
0
|
85
|
3
|
1793
|
4.72
|
Cooking facilities have been decreased
|
163
|
93
|
0
|
0
|
120
|
4
|
1687
|
4.44
|
Creating problems in infrastructure gradually
|
153
|
195
|
0
|
0
|
26
|
6
|
1951
|
5.13
|
Creating problems in the sanitation system gradually
|
164
|
124
|
0
|
0
|
89
|
3
|
1785
|
4.70
|
Impeding proper transportation systems gradually
|
120
|
197
|
0
|
0
|
63
|
0
|
1831
|
4.82
|
Spending extra payment for capital
|
98
|
229
|
0
|
0
|
46
|
7
|
1832
|
4.82
|
HHS
|
140
|
95
|
0
|
0
|
138
|
7
|
1598
|
4.21
|
changed
|
127
|
64
|
0
|
0
|
184
|
5
|
1455
|
3.83
|
People in our locality were involved in illegal practices
|
164
|
33
|
0
|
0
|
173
|
10
|
1505
|
3.96
|
Did not find any job/work
|
108
|
95
|
0
|
0
|
176
|
1
|
1476
|
3.88
|
Increased poverty in your community
|
224
|
129
|
0
|
0
|
27
|
0
|
2043
|
5.38
|
No loan facility from NGOs
|
96
|
271
|
0
|
0
|
9
|
4
|
1953
|
5.14
|
Impacting public exam (PSC/JSC/SSC/HSC)
|
198
|
156
|
0
|
0
|
21
|
5
|
2015
|
5.30
|
Relatives, neighbors, and community people move to
another place
|
175
|
169
|
0
|
0
|
31
|
5
|
1962
|
5.16
|
HHS
|
185
|
152
|
0
|
0
|
43
|
0
|
1956
|
5.15
|
Feel social distance
|
160
|
174
|
0
|
0
|
45
|
1
|
1921
|
5.06
|
Feel insecurity
|
176
|
184
|
0
|
0
|
17
|
3
|
2013
|
5.30
|
Solve it by myself when I face difficulties (Disaster)
|
142
|
235
|
0
|
0
|
2
|
1
|
2032
|
5.35
|
Motivated others to solve these difficulties
|
110
|
141
|
0
|
0
|
129
|
0
|
1623
|
4.27
|
Feel helpless during tidal inundation
|
131
|
132
|
0
|
0
|
15
|
2
|
1478
|
3.89
|
Challenges faced by older people, pregnant women,
disabled people and children
|
130
|
246
|
0
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
2018
|
5.31
|
Challenge faces an emergency (Public exam/
Official meeting/treatment)
|
125
|
253
|
0
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
2019
|
5.31
|
The ranking of livelihood impacts was subsequently categorized into three distinct levels: very high impact, high impact, and moderate impact, as depicted in Figure 2.
Very High Impact: The study results revealed that seven indicators were characterized by a very high impact, including feeling helpless during tidal inundation, not finding any job or work, motivating others to address these difficulties, cooking facilities, gradual problems in the sanitation system, challenges faced in emergencies such as public exams, official meetings, and medical treatments, and increased poverty.
High Impact: Seventeen indicators were identified as having a high impact, encompassing aspects such as local involvement in illegal practices, creation of food insecurity among households, damage to educational institutions due to tidal inundation, difficulties in attending school/college during inundation, challenges in commuting to offices and workplaces, increased time consumption for day-to-day activities, psychological disabilities stemming from tidal inundation, a heightened sense of social distance, gradual infrastructure problems, absence of loan facilities from NGOs, forced displacement of households, relocation of relatives, neighbors, and community members, physical disabilities resulting from tidal inundation, feelings of insecurity, impacts on public exams (PSC/JSC/SSC/HSC), challenges faced by family members (older people, pregnant women, disabled individuals, and children), and the inclination to resolve difficulties during disasters.
Moderate Impact: Additionally, five indicators were classified as having a moderate impact, which included changes in household occupation patterns, decreased water quality, additional expenditures for capital, a gradual hindrance to the transportation system, and the disruption of total class hours.
This section highlights unique insights gleaned from the focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) with the respondents, shedding light on their perspectives regarding the effects of tidal inundation on their livelihoods. Among these discussions, Figure 2 showcases the remarks provided by FGD participants concerning the interconnectedness of tidal inundation and its impacts on livelihoods. An excerpt from FGD-1, featuring a high school teacher from Ward No. 4 (Chandgaon), illustrates this sentiment:
The process doesn't take long to happen; it used to take around 2 hours, but now it takes 8-10 hours. Going out becomes nearly impossible, while coming in is still feasible. I've had to change my residence three times already due to rising water levels. The flooding has severely affected the lower floors of our school; they're no longer usable. If you visit the area, you'll witness the extensive presence of water. Three rooms in the school have been destroyed. I've been living in this area for twenty years, while my senior has been here for thirty years. It feels as though we're gradually succumbing to the encroaching water, losing ground every year by about a foot. Now, it has become an annual practice to change our homes solely due to the water.
During FGD-2, a social worker and community leader from ward no-36 (Gosaildanga) in Chattogram City shared their perspective:
We're experiencing severe damage to roads and schools, especially affecting boys and girls who can't even attend exams. In 2017, due to flooding, many couldn't even reach the test centers. Accidents have become a common occurrence. This year, water levels rose to the point of flooding one whole room. Over the past two years, 2017-18, we've seen significant water intrusion. The cost of repairing homes keeps escalating. We've resorted to building dams and walls to protect our houses. Houses constructed 20 to 40 years ago have been forced onto lower floors due to water. If you observe Port Connected Road, the access road, all the shops have sunk while the road remains elevated. Sadly, there's no effective solution for the water issue. The road was built without considering how our lives would be impacted and how high the water could rise. Even when someone seeks to rent a house from the Chittagong Development Authority (CDA), they opt for higher floors, avoiding the lower ones. Moreover, they're reluctant to even come to the CDA area. The incoming water is heavily polluted, and the drainage system is in dismal condition.
Figure 3 illustrates the insights gathered from Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) regarding the impacts of tidal inundation. The findings highlight that approximately seven KIIs provided comments on the effects of tidal inundation. A geographer from Chittagong University expressed:
The sufferings of the residents in this region seem never-ending. Roads and even homes become submerged. The stark reality is that they lack the means to migrate elsewhere, even if they wish to. Let's consider the example of Chattogram town; if someone owns a flat or house in Bakolia or Dewan Bazar, they're essentially unable to purchase another property. Furthermore, selling their current dwelling is not an option due to the prevailing circumstances. Everyone in that area is trying to escape the situation that forced them into it. Consequently, they're grappling with a multitude of challenges."
A professor from the Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries at the University of Chittagong emphasized:
The rapid increase in inundation is primarily attributed to urbanization and inadequate sewage systems. This escalation significantly impacts the way of life.
A statement was provided by a Professor (Engineer) who serves as the Pro-Vice-Chancellor (in Charge) and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering at Southern University of Bangladesh:
Renting ground floors becomes impractical. In the Pachlaish Residential Area near Jatishongho Park, the upper floors are more affordable to rent due to lower water levels. During the monsoon season, transportation becomes severely hindered. Our valuable assets, the houses we've constructed, have become non-functional. The gradual nature of these changes has made it difficult to gauge the extent of the issue. While there was a potential for the entire town to be abandoned, it hasn't happened. Consider the case of the embankment of Mohesh Khal, which cost 2 crores to build but needed to be demolished. The question arises: Whose money was utilized for this action? It's the citizens' funds that have been squandered. Meanwhile, areas like Agrabad that used to be unaffected are now facing these challenges daily.
The Engineer and Deputy Team Leader of the Chattogram Strategic Urban Transport Master Plan (World Bank Project) provided insights:
Some areas in Chottogram were intentionally designed to be submerged, which we referred to as water retention or storage. In these areas, water would come and recede after a certain period. Initially, we didn't realize whether we were being affected by tidal inundation or not. However, now we understand the extent of its impact, and it's more pronounced than it was two decades ago.
The Chief City Planner of Chattogram City Corporation (CCC) shared his perspective:
The rapid increase in inundation is a consequence of urbanization and a deficient sewage system. This situation is substantially altering our way of life.
An official from the Department of Environment, Chattogram Division, stated:
In the Bakliya area, ground floors have been abandoned due to the effects of tidal inundation.
The Superintending Engineer (Civil) of Chattogram O&M Circle, Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), specifically highlighted the varied impacts of tidal inundation:
Tidal inundation leads to the damage of coastal embankments, roads, bridges, and culverts. It affects dwelling places, community facilities, clinics, hospitals, educational and religious institutions, small industries, electric lines, and poles. This phenomenon results in the mixing of saline and turbid water with freshwater in ponds, unsanitary waste disposal due to disrupted latrine facilities, and contamination of water sources. The affected dwellers face challenges like scarcity of safe water, firewood, and food security. Waterborne diseases increase, medical facilities become scarce, and educational activities are disrupted. Moreover, road networks are disrupted, leading to transportation and communication breakdowns, with significant consequences for the affected community.