2.1 TPB
TPB was proposed by Ajzen based on the multi-attribute attitude model (MAAM) developed by Fishbein et al. and the theory of reasoned action (TRA). And TPB improves on the MAAM and TRA by including perceptual behavioural control, which predicts actual behaviour by determining behavioural intention through attitude, subjective norms, and perceptual behavioural control [12]. Attitude and subjective norm are motivational variables that generate behavioural intention. Attitude refers to an individual's specific response to the belief and evaluation of outcomes associated with intention and behaviour, subjective norms relate to the social pressures of individuals may experience in performing a particular behaviour. Perceived behavioural control refers to a person's belief in their ability to perform a task despite any challenges that may arise. It affects their intention to act and actual behaviour [36, 37]. Intention, as a conscious decision, embodies the potential motivation and dedication to engage in specific behaviours [28, 38], exerting a substantial influence on the prediction and interpretation of sports-related conduct [39–41].
To date, over 2,000 studies have substantiated the efficacy of TPB in predicting and comprehending human behaviour [42], it have extensively employed for predicting, elucidating, and intervening in health-related behaviours [26, 36, 43]. Furthermore, there exist researches related to TPB predictive in resistance training. Previous research has consistently demonstrated that attitude serves as a significant predictor of the intention and behaviour of female college students in relation to their engagement in resistance training [44]. This conclusion is further supported by extending the sample to include male college students [45]. Current researches also has demonstrated variations in the impact of subjective norms and perceived behavioural control on resistance training intention and behaviour across diverse populations [44, 45]. Compared to female college students without exercise experience, College girls who regularly engaged in resistance training exhibited higher levels of perceived behavioural control [44]. Another study found that subjective norms had a stronger mediating effect on behaviour through intention resistance training than perceived behavioural control [45]. In terms of the consistency between intention and behaviour in resistance training, variations exist across different populations. For instance, Plotnikoff et al. (2008) discovered that there is no significant correlation observed between intention and behaviour in resistance training among individuals with diabetes. Conversely, a significant correlation has been identified between intention and behaviour in resistance training among college students[44, 45]. Although TPB offers a certain explanatory power for resistance training behaviour, its application in college students warrants further discussion. In summary, this study proposes the following hypotheses:
Hypotheses 1
Attitude have a significant positive impact on the intention of college students to participant in resistance training
Hypotheses 2
subjective norms have a significant positive impact on the intention of college students to participant in resistance training.
Hypotheses 3
perceived behavioural control have a significant positive impact on the intention of college students to participant in resistance training.
Hypotheses 4
The intention of college students to participant in resistance training have the significant positive impact on their actual behaviour.
2.2 SNS
SNS have been defined a type of online social media platform which people use to build social networks or social relationships with other people who share similar personal or career content, interests, activities, back arounds[11, 46]. The SNS transcends the constraints of time and space, providing users with a convenient and cost-effective platform for interactive communication [47]. It exhibits a robust capacity for disseminating health information, enhancing users' knowledge in the field of health [12, 47, 48], and influencing their health-related behaviours. Several studies have indicated that the utilization of SNS can effectively stimulate individuals' engagement in resistance training [12], this is primarily attributed to the fact that combining resistance training with a nutritious diet facilitates muscle development and sculpting, thereby enabling individuals to attain their desired physique. Such aspirations for an ideal body shape are widely acknowledged and actively pursued within the realm of SNS [20]. In particular, the concept of 'Fitspiration' has gained significant traction on SNS through the dissemination of visual content such as pictures and videos, effectively fostering a heightened interest and enhanced motivation among individuals to engage in resistance training while adhering to a nutritious diet [20, 49]. In China, SNS also provide extensive information on resistance training. On one hand, the dissemination of such information enhance the intention of users to adopting healthy behaviours [20] and improve the efficacy of health-related behaviours. On the other hand, the dissemination of such information may also engender adverse social comparisons and psychological distress among users, as well as foster an excessive pursuit of idealized body standards, thereby detrimentally impacting users' health [50]. Even in the study conducted by Fatt et al. (2019) among adult males, it was observed that a higher frequency of exposure to resistance training-related information on SNS positively influenced their motivation to engage in resistance training with the aim of enhancing their physical appearance [51].
The low cost and convenience of SNS can provide users with personalized information through interaction, sharing, self-monitoring functions, which can influence users' decision-making and implementation. Various studies have demonstrated that SNS has a significant impact on pregnancy planning among young women, self-management planning in chronic patients, and travel planning within the general population [52–54]. The impact of SNS on emotions is significant [21]. Research on Fitspiration shows that it can generate negative emotions for users [20, 50, 51]. For instance, exposure to SNS’s messages promoting the societal concept of an "ideal body" can elicit heightened negative affect in women [50]. The above research provides the evidence for college students to trigger action plans, coping plans and emotions related to resistance training and the influence on their resistance training behaviours under the impact of SNS. In summary, this study proposes the following hypotheses:
Hypotheses 5
SNS has a significant positive impact on college students' intention to participate in resistance training.
Hypotheses 6
SNS has a significant positive impact on the plans related to resistance training of college students.
Hypotheses 7
SNS has a significant positive impact on the emotions of college students participating in resistance training.
2.3 Planning and Emotion
Numerous studies have shown that intention of exercise is not always a good predictor of actual behavior, and there are inconsistencies in the relationship between intention and behavior. [38, 39, 55]. This observation holds on even when considering research related to college students [56, 57]. A substantial gap exists between intention and actual behavioural outcomes. As a self-regulatory strategy, individuals using planning as psychological cues and stimuli to facilitate the translation of their' intentions into tangible behaviours [58]. Although previous studies have established the mediating role of planning in the relationship between intention and behaviour [29], the inclusion of planning as a variable within the extended TPB still aligns with the framework of rational cognitive hypotheses. Emotion is a short-term and dynamic state of mind, and more and more researches have realized that emotion plays an important mediating role between intention and behaviour [23, 59–61]. Previous research has integrated both planning and emotion into the TPB as a crucial mechanism for bridging the intention-behaviour gap, thereby augmenting the predictive and explanatory capacity of this theoretical framework [61].
The inconsistency between the intention and behaviour, which is more likely to happen to those who initially have intention but fail to follow through with their behaviours [29]. Planning and emotions will affect people's decisions related behaviour. Mohiyeddini et al. (2009) believes that planning and other factors also play a very important role in the process from intention to behaviour [61]. The planning can be categorized into two types: action planning and coping planning. The action planning refers to the psychological prediction of a specific behaviour [63], while the coping planning involves anticipating potential difficulties and obstacles during the implementation process [64]. The review conducted by Peng et al. (2022) revealed that individuals with action planning exhibited a higher rate of exercise participation compared to those without planning. Although Budden (2007) compare the impact of individuals with action planning versus those without action planning on exercise compliance and found no statistically significant difference, And they observed that the presence of action planning negatively influenced the relationship between intention and actual behaviour[65]. Several studies have demonstrated the significant role of coping plans in maintaining exercise behaviour [29], whereas another study indicated that action planning exhibit significant predictive capability for the persistence of exercise behaviour compared to coping plan [66]. Bagozzi et al. (2004) posit that the association between intention and emotion is contingent upon the attainment of behavioural goals, whereby goals achievement related positive emotions and sustains ongoing behaviour; Otherwise, it may give rise to negative emotions, thereby potentially impairing the behavioural performance. Kemper and Lazaru (1992) posit that distinct emotions have varying influences on behaviours. Furthermore, Roseman (2011) posits that different emotions shows varying influences on the transform relationship between intention and behaviour. For instance, experiencing positive emotions such as happiness not only fosters individuals' to engagement in exercise, but also facilitates the translation of exercise-related intentions into actual behaviours [61, 67]. In summary, this study proposes the following hypotheses:
Hypotheses 8
The intention of college students participating in resistance training has a significant positive impact on the plan.
Hypotheses 9
The intention of college students participating in resistance training has a significant positive impact on the emotion.
Hypotheses 10
Planning has a significant positive effect on behaviour of college students' participation in resistance training.
Hypotheses 11
Emotion has a significant positive effect on behaviour of college students' participation in resistance training.
2.4 The mediating role of plan, emotion and intention
The purpose and function of the planning are mainly to promote the implementation of behaviours and the realization of goals more effectively [29], which may play an important mediating role between SNS and behaviours. College students, being digital natives [69], are closely associated with SNS. Exercise and health information is readily available on social media, and can affect their exercise habits. College students' approach to designing resistance training has been transformed by all the knowledge and videos available on SNS. They can make personalized training plans quickly using SNS data to improve their involvement in resistance training with this pattern shift. By providing instant communication and information access, SNS meet cognitive and emotional needs, leading to positive emotional effects and stronger social support. [70]. However, college students may also suffer from Internet addiction [71] and emotional distress due to excessive SNS use and information overload [72, 73]. Currently, there is a substantial amount of information regarding resistance training on SNS that poses challenges in discerning its veracity, thereby negatively impacting the emotion of college students who may be misled. Consequently, this misinformation can potentially influence their engagement in resistance training. The SNS facilitates communication and interaction among users in a virtual space with anonymous identities. It transcends the constraints of time, space, and inter-group contacts while allowing for the sharing of vast amounts of user-generated information. This fosters online consultation and discussion among users, facilitating the identification of like-minded partners [47]. College students frequently engage in SNS, serving as the primary user group for sharing and disseminating information pertaining to resistance training. This facilitates the formation of workout group and enables them to find workout partners who share similar interests, thereby greatly enhancing their intention to engage in resistance training. Existing research demonstrates a significant influence of resistance training intention on behaviour [44, 45, 74]. In summary, this study proposes the following hypotheses:
Hypotheses 12
Planning has a significant mediating effect between online social media and resistance training behaviour of college students.
Hypotheses 13
Emotion has a significant mediating effect between online social media and resistance training behaviour of college students.
Hypotheses 14
The intention of resistance training had a significant mediating effect between social media and behaviour in college students.
Existing studies in the field of health behaviour suggests that both planning[66, 75, 76] and emotion [23, 60, 61] play a significant mediating role between exercise intention and behaviour. The discrepancy between intentions and behaviours primarily arises from the inherent challenge of translating intentions into tangible behaviours [77]. ABM et al. (1998) ascribe this phenomenon to a dearth of self-regulatory strategies [78].
During the process of resistance training behaviour, college students develop a goal intention at the psychological level, which show their perception and understanding of the desired outcome, thereby serving as a guiding power for engaging in resistance training. The implementation of the established goals necessitates individuals to devise specific actions and response plans tailored to their unique circumstances. During the goal-setting process, individuals will formulate specific action and coping planning follow their unique circumstances. College students who utilize SNS for developing resistance training plannings are more likely to effectively implement their plannings into specific resistance training behaviours. The process of creating detailed action planning is referred to as the post-intention stage, as defined by GOLLWITZER (1999) [58]. As mentioned above, while SNS has an impact on intentions, the specific information it provides can also have a significant impact on maintaining or amplifying users' emotions [21]. Previous study have indicated that the emotion responded by SNS during information exchange regarding resistance training with both familiar and unfamiliar users are significantly associated with the intention to participant in resistance training [22]. It can be inferred that intention and emotion may serve as mediators in the relationship between SNS and college students' resistance training behaviour. In summary, this study proposes the following hypotheses:
Hypotheses 15
Planning has a significant mediating effect on the resistance training intention and behaviour of college students.
Hypotheses 16
Emotion has a significant mediating effect on the resistance training intention and behaviour of college students.
Hypotheses 17
The intention and planning for resistance training among college students serve as significant mediators between SNS and behaviour.
Hypotheses 18
The intention and emotion for resistance training among college students serve as significant mediators between SNS and behaviour.
2.5 Proposed mixed model of planning behaviour
Since the advent of the stylus, printing press, newspapers, telephone, radio, and television - all capable of recording and transmitting information - each communication technology and innovation has engendered profound transformations in human society [70]. The number of SNS users worldwide has exceeded 3.8 billion, making it the primary means of daily communication and information exchange [79], as well as a platform for accessing and sharing health information. Laranjo et al. (2015) highlighted that SNS have the potential to facilitate individuals' adoption of healthy behaviours, while simultaneously offering free and convenient features that can expanded of users' social networks and enhance their access to social support [80]. By analyzing shared health topics, comments, and interactions on SNS, personalized health information can be matched with users' interests and preferences to meet their individual needs. This influences users' health behaviours positively by increasing compliance and participation [81]. The TPB, widely used in health behaviour research, needs to be updated with the rise of SNS to remain scientifically relevant and future-oriented. As a significant intervention in the field of public health, SNS has gained extensive utilization for modifying individuals' health behaviour and promoting their overall well-being [82]. Therefore, this study acknowledges the significance of SNS as a crucial variable and incorporates it into the framework of the TPB.
According to the TPB, the intention to change health behaviour not only represents an individual's motivational goal but also serves as a necessary prerequisite and the most significant predictor [26, 41]. The process of behaviour change involves initiating, maintaining, and recovering from failures or negative behaviours before achieving goals. Relying solely on intentions is insufficient as there is a significant gap between intentions and behaviours [83]. Planning plays a pivotal role in bridging the intention-behaviour gap by providing concrete guidance on when, where, and how to execute or adopt corresponding behaviours, thereby reflecting an individual's action orientation towards achieving specific goals within specific contexts. The planning is based on a specific intention, and it enhances the individual's possibility of achieving the goal pursuit according to the specific situation. SNIEHOTTA et al. (2005) show that once people make a good planning, they can immediately generate mental representations suitable for future situation action planning, which is very effective in achieving behaviours [84]. SNIEHOTTA et al. (2005) demonstrate that once individuals formulate a well-structured planning, they can promptly generate cognitive representations tailored for future situational action planning, thereby significantly enhancing the achievement of behaviour. Given its cost-effectiveness and efficacy, this study incorporates planning as an integral component of the TPB.
Exercise is accompanied by emotion, and emotion has become a significant factor in the field of health behaviour. The emotion caused by resistance training have also garnered considerable interest from research and resulted in numerous academic achievements. For instance, Daniel et al. (2019) have shown that resistance training can improve emotions during and after exercise [85], Silva et al. (2018) have found that low-intensity resistance training combined with blood flow restriction has a more negative emotional impact on basketball players compared to high-intensity resistance training [86]. In the elderly population, Parkington et al. (2022) was discovered that low-intensity blood flow restriction resistance training promotes positive emotional responses after exercise when compared to moderate intensity resistance training [87]. TPB assumes that the main motivation behind exercise participation is the inner desire for positive health, and motivation can be estimated by subjective judgment of expected probability. TPB pursued a universal rationality that explained the mental processes behind people's participation in exercise, but disregarded their instincts as emotional beings. Similar to rational cognition, emotion is rooted in and derived from the body, playing an equally important role in explaining resistance training behaviours and compensating for the limited explanatory power of TPB’ fundamental hypotheses. Therefore, this study added emotion as an important variable toTPB to explore the resistance training behaviour of college students. In summary, this study constructs a hybrid model of TPB by integrating the three variables of SNS, planning, and emotion based on the TPB, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
[ Fig. 1 near here]