Diversity and nutritional value of documented WUNEPs
In the context of a culturally diverse country with over 300 distinct ethnic groups, Indonesian cuisine significantly varies among different ethnic groups and regions. Wild food plants in West Java, particularly leafy vegetables, play a crucial role in the Sundanese diet. The Sundanese people are well known for their habit of consuming fresh greens, known as lalab (Sundanese) or lalap/lalapan (Indonesian) [15], in their daily meals, similar to Western salads. Most lalap dishes are traditionally consumed raw and typically served with sambal, a spicy paste condiment made from a mixture of chili and other secondary ingredients such as shrimp paste, shallots, palm sugar, and lime juice. It is comparable to salad dressing or salsa, adding flavor and enhancing the overall taste of the dish. While initially associated with food culture in the West Java region, lalap is now essential in Indonesian cuisine and includes all types of vegetables [24]. However, in the specific context of Sundanese communities, lalap encompasses both wild/non-cultivated and semi-domesticated edible plants. Numerous studies underscore the high nutritional value of wild edible plants [9, 35, 37–39], as evidenced by different documented groups of WUNEPs (Table 1). The nutritional composition of the selected WUNEPs is examined, along with their potential contribution to the RDA of certain nutrients. Table 3 demonstrates that some of the documented WUNEPs serve as significant sources of certain nutrients (RDA > 15%) or contain high levels (RDA > 30%).
Table 3
Percentage of contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for adults (30 through 49 y) of proteins, fiber, mineral elements (Ca, Fe, Zn), and vitamin C of the edible parts (100 g portions) of the documented WUNEPs.
Plant species
|
Edible part
|
Protein
|
|
Fiber
|
|
Ca
|
|
Fe
|
|
Zn
|
|
Vit. C
|
RDA (men/women)1
|
|
65
|
/
|
60
|
|
36
|
/
|
30
|
|
1000
|
|
9
|
/
|
18
|
|
11
|
/
|
8
|
|
90
|
/
|
75
|
|
g/day
|
|
g/day
|
|
mg/day
|
|
mg/day
|
|
mg/day
|
|
mg/day
|
P. edule
|
Kernel/seeds
|
13.3
|
/
|
14.4
|
|
26.7
|
/
|
32.0
|
|
4.1
|
|
22.8
|
/
|
11.4
|
|
12.7
|
/
|
17.5
|
|
27.2
|
/
|
32.7
|
C. asiatica
|
Leaves
|
11.6
|
/
|
12.6
|
|
6.4
|
/
|
7.7
|
|
10.1
|
|
23.9
|
/
|
11.9
|
|
99.1
|
/
|
136.3
|
|
0.8
|
/
|
1.0
|
E. foetidum
|
Leaves
|
5.6
|
/
|
6.1
|
|
15.2
|
/
|
18.2
|
|
33.4
|
|
358.3
|
/
|
179.2
|
|
42.4
|
/
|
58.3
|
|
84.4
|
/
|
101.3
|
O. javanica
|
Aerial parts
|
3.2
|
/
|
3.4
|
|
5.5
|
/
|
6.6
|
|
15.2
|
|
34.1
|
/
|
17.1
|
|
–
|
|
13.5
|
/
|
16.2
|
A. occidentale
|
Young leaves
|
8.2
|
/
|
8.9
|
|
8.3
|
/
|
10.0
|
|
2.4
|
|
52.4
|
/
|
26.2
|
|
–
|
|
286.2
|
/
|
343.5
|
M. foetida
|
Peel
|
1.6
|
/
|
1.7
|
|
141.5
|
/
|
169.8
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
M. odorata
|
Fruits
|
1.6
|
/
|
1.8
|
|
11.7
|
/
|
14.0
|
|
1.5
|
|
3.9
|
/
|
1.9
|
|
0.9
|
/
|
1.3
|
|
41.1
|
/
|
49.3
|
A. rupestris
|
Rhizomes
|
7.2
|
/
|
7.8
|
|
8.3
|
/
|
10.0
|
|
2.4
|
|
11.4
|
/
|
5.7
|
|
2.9
|
/
|
4.0
|
|
24.4
|
/
|
29.3
|
A. ciliata
|
Aerial parts
|
5.7
|
/
|
6.2
|
|
24.7
|
/
|
29.7
|
|
40.4
|
|
577.8
|
/
|
288.9
|
|
96.4
|
/
|
132.5
|
|
22.2
|
/
|
26.7
|
C. caudatus
|
Leaves
|
6.1
|
/
|
6.6
|
|
16.1
|
/
|
19.3
|
|
32.8
|
|
24.8
|
/
|
12.4
|
|
3.9
|
/
|
5.4
|
|
130.9
|
/
|
157.0
|
C. crepidioides
|
Leaves
|
34.8
|
/
|
37.7
|
|
30.4
|
/
|
36.5
|
|
20.4
|
|
67.2
|
/
|
33.6
|
|
53.0
|
/
|
72.9
|
|
45.8
|
/
|
55.0
|
G. divaricata
|
Leaves
|
28.4
|
/
|
30.7
|
|
105.2
|
/
|
126.2
|
|
135.0
|
|
151.0
|
/
|
75.5
|
|
–
|
|
12.2
|
/
|
14.7
|
E. sumatrensis
|
Leaves
|
26.8
|
/
|
29.1
|
|
35.2
|
/
|
42.2
|
|
1.2
|
|
18.7
|
/
|
9.3
|
|
–
|
|
0.6
|
/
|
0.8
|
B. pilosa
|
Aerial parts
|
5.0
|
/
|
5.4
|
|
7.2
|
/
|
8.7
|
|
22.5
|
|
91.7
|
/
|
45.8
|
|
10.7
|
/
|
14.8
|
|
44.4
|
/
|
53.3
|
E. sonchifolia
|
Leaves
|
3.2
|
/
|
3.5
|
|
82.6
|
/
|
99.1
|
|
75.0
|
|
315.4
|
/
|
157.7
|
|
5.4
|
/
|
7.4
|
|
14.1
|
/
|
16.9
|
D. esculentum
|
Leaves
|
6.1
|
/
|
6.6
|
|
8.8
|
/
|
10.5
|
|
7.5
|
|
20.0
|
/
|
10.0
|
|
4.5
|
/
|
6.3
|
|
7.2
|
/
|
8.7
|
C. indica
|
Rhizomes
|
1.2
|
/
|
1.3
|
|
2.2
|
/
|
2.7
|
|
1.8
|
|
116.7
|
/
|
58.3
|
|
|
/
|
|
10.6
|
/
|
12.7
|
I. batatas
|
Young leaves
|
26.1
|
/
|
28.2
|
|
26.5
|
/
|
31.8
|
|
27.9
|
|
124.3
|
/
|
62.1
|
|
17.0
|
/
|
23.3
|
|
6.7
|
/
|
8.0
|
B. hispida
|
Fruits
|
0.8
|
/
|
0.8
|
|
3.1
|
/
|
3.7
|
|
1.4
|
|
3.8
|
/
|
1.9
|
|
1.8
|
/
|
2.5
|
|
39.1
|
/
|
46.9
|
L. siceraria
|
Fruits
|
0.9
|
/
|
1.0
|
|
1.5
|
/
|
1.8
|
|
1.9
|
|
45.0
|
/
|
22.5
|
|
6.4
|
/
|
8.8
|
|
54.3
|
/
|
65.2
|
S. edulis
|
Fruits
|
1.3
|
/
|
1.4
|
|
4.7
|
/
|
5.7
|
|
1.7
|
|
3.8
|
/
|
1.9
|
|
6.7
|
/
|
9.3
|
|
8.6
|
/
|
10.3
|
|
Leaves and stems
|
5.8
|
/
|
6.3
|
|
31.7
|
/
|
38.0
|
|
6.3
|
|
36.8
|
/
|
18.4
|
|
11.7
|
/
|
16.1
|
|
21.1
|
/
|
25.3
|
M. esculenta
|
Inner peel/ cortex
|
–
|
|
34.5
|
/
|
41.4
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
Leaves
|
26.3
|
/
|
28.5
|
|
33.1
|
/
|
39.7
|
|
20.6
|
|
26.7
|
/
|
13.3
|
|
30.5
|
/
|
41.9
|
|
176.9
|
/
|
212.3
|
|
Tuber
|
1.5
|
/
|
1.7
|
|
2.5
|
/
|
3.0
|
|
6.3
|
|
12.2
|
/
|
6.1
|
|
3.6
|
/
|
5.0
|
|
34.4
|
/
|
41.3
|
A. jiringa
|
Bean/ seed
|
8.3
|
/
|
9.0
|
|
4.2
|
/
|
5.0
|
|
0.4
|
|
7.8
|
/
|
3.9
|
|
5.5
|
/
|
7.5
|
|
34.4
|
/
|
41.3
|
C. ternatea
|
Flowerss
|
0.5
|
/
|
0.5
|
|
5.8
|
/
|
7.0
|
|
0.3
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
L. leucocephala
|
Seed and pods
|
28.3
|
/
|
30.7
|
|
37.8
|
/
|
45.4
|
|
49.0
|
|
21.5
|
/
|
10.8
|
|
32.9
|
/
|
45.2
|
|
16.7
|
/
|
20.0
|
L. flava
|
Aerial parts
|
2.1
|
/
|
2.3
|
|
6.0
|
/
|
7.2
|
|
7.1
|
|
23.7
|
/
|
11.9
|
|
5.4
|
/
|
7.4
|
|
57.8
|
/
|
69.3
|
D. zibethinus
|
Fruits
|
3.6
|
/
|
3.9
|
|
7.4
|
/
|
8.8
|
|
3.6
|
|
14.4
|
/
|
7.2
|
|
2.8
|
/
|
3.9
|
|
70.4
|
/
|
84.5
|
M. malabathricum
|
Fruits
|
8.1
|
/
|
8.8
|
|
23.8
|
/
|
28.5
|
|
15.2
|
|
47.4
|
/
|
23.7
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
S. koetjape
|
Fruits
|
3.5
|
/
|
3.8
|
|
38.6
|
/
|
46.4
|
|
5.7
|
|
18.3
|
/
|
9.2
|
|
–
|
|
15.6
|
/
|
18.7
|
C. barbata
|
Leaves
|
6.5
|
/
|
7.0
|
|
27.2
|
/
|
32.7
|
|
23.7
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
A. altilis
|
Fruits
|
4.1
|
/
|
4.4
|
|
2.4
|
/
|
2.8
|
|
3.6
|
|
290.6
|
/
|
145.3
|
|
2.8
|
/
|
3.9
|
|
13.7
|
/
|
16.5
|
F. carica
|
Fruits
|
3.1
|
/
|
3.4
|
|
17.6
|
/
|
21.2
|
|
9.9
|
|
13.3
|
/
|
6.7
|
|
3.2
|
/
|
4.4
|
|
1.8
|
/
|
2.1
|
M. oleifera
|
Leaves
|
25.1
|
/
|
27.2
|
|
28.4
|
/
|
34.1
|
|
109.7
|
|
173.8
|
/
|
86.9
|
|
5.5
|
/
|
7.5
|
|
71.1
|
/
|
85.3
|
M. calabura
|
Fruits
|
6.6
|
/
|
7.2
|
|
14.6
|
/
|
17.6
|
|
12.4
|
|
13.1
|
/
|
6.6
|
|
–
|
|
46.6
|
/
|
55.9
|
S. cumini
|
Fruits
|
1.5
|
/
|
1.6
|
|
1.6
|
/
|
1.9
|
|
3.1
|
|
11.7
|
/
|
5.9
|
|
10.9
|
/
|
14.9
|
|
34.3
|
/
|
41.1
|
A. bilimbi
|
Fruits
|
9.3
|
/
|
10.1
|
|
22.1
|
/
|
26.5
|
|
0.9
|
|
–
|
|
0.4
|
/
|
0.5
|
|
110.3
|
/
|
132.3
|
A. bunius
|
Fruits
|
1.4
|
/
|
1.5
|
|
1.7
|
/
|
2.0
|
|
39.4
|
|
42.1
|
/
|
21.1
|
|
26.4
|
/
|
36.3
|
|
42.4
|
/
|
50.9
|
B. racemosa
|
Fruits
|
2.6
|
/
|
2.8
|
|
–
|
|
1.3
|
|
8.9
|
/
|
4.4
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
B. androgyna
|
Leaves
|
4.9
|
/
|
5.3
|
|
2.1
|
/
|
2.5
|
|
22.9
|
|
78.9
|
/
|
39.5
|
|
–
|
|
186.8
|
/
|
224.2
|
P. acidus
|
Fruits
|
1.1
|
/
|
1.2
|
|
1.5
|
/
|
1.8
|
|
0.7
|
|
4.2
|
/
|
2.1
|
|
1.4
|
/
|
1.9
|
|
8.9
|
/
|
10.7
|
P. emblica
|
Fruits
|
3.6
|
/
|
3.9
|
|
34.7
|
/
|
41.7
|
|
9.5
|
|
24.6
|
/
|
12.3
|
|
9.3
|
/
|
12.9
|
|
507.2
|
/
|
608.7
|
P. retrofractum
|
Fruits
|
17.5
|
/
|
19.0
|
|
80.0
|
/
|
96.0
|
|
41.5
|
|
56.9
|
/
|
28.4
|
|
8.5
|
/
|
11.6
|
|
–
|
S. bicolor
|
Grains
|
11.7
|
/
|
12.7
|
|
5.0
|
/
|
6.0
|
|
1.4
|
|
24.6
|
/
|
12.3
|
|
8.6
|
/
|
11.8
|
|
–
|
F. rukam
|
Fruits
|
2.2
|
/
|
2.4
|
|
14.6
|
/
|
17.5
|
|
5.5
|
|
13.3
|
/
|
6.7
|
|
8.2
|
/
|
11.3
|
|
152.2
|
/
|
182.7
|
P. angulata
|
Fruits
|
11.2
|
/
|
12.2
|
|
21.4
|
/
|
25.6
|
|
1.2
|
|
34.5
|
/
|
17.2
|
|
0.2
|
/
|
0.3
|
|
51.6
|
/
|
62.0
|
S. americanum
|
Fruits
|
2.3
|
/
|
2.5
|
|
5.6
|
/
|
6.7
|
|
87.3
|
|
225.0
|
/
|
112.5
|
|
2.7
|
/
|
3.8
|
|
18.9
|
/
|
22.7
|
S. nigrum
|
Fruits
|
16.6
|
/
|
17.9
|
|
3.9
|
/
|
4.7
|
|
2.2
|
|
6.2
|
/
|
3.1
|
|
–
|
|
6.0
|
/
|
7.2
|
S. torvum
|
Fruits
|
1.9
|
/
|
2.0
|
|
13.8
|
/
|
16.5
|
|
19.4
|
|
69.2
|
/
|
34.6
|
|
31.0
|
/
|
42.6
|
|
8.8
|
/
|
10.5
|
P. melastomoides
|
Leaves
|
16.3
|
/
|
17.7
|
|
5.7
|
/
|
6.8
|
|
74.4
|
|
37.9
|
/
|
18.9
|
|
1.8
|
/
|
2.5
|
|
27.9
|
/
|
33.4
|
A. galanga
|
Rhizomes
|
2.6
|
/
|
2.9
|
|
21.0
|
/
|
25.2
|
|
4.4
|
|
43.6
|
/
|
21.8
|
|
15.5
|
/
|
21.3
|
|
55.6
|
/
|
66.7
|
|
Flowers
|
2.2
|
/
|
2.4
|
|
9.9
|
/
|
11.9
|
|
4.1
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
A. dealbatum
|
Fruits
|
4.8
|
/
|
5.2
|
|
17.9
|
/
|
21.5
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
E. elatior
|
Flowers
|
12.8
|
/
|
13.9
|
|
28.8
|
/
|
34.6
|
|
59.1
|
|
27.8
|
/
|
13.9
|
|
84.0
|
/
|
115.6
|
|
15.1
|
/
|
18.1
|
E. punicea
|
Fruits
|
14.7
|
/
|
15.9
|
|
85.6
|
/
|
102.7
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
|
–
|
1 [34]
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)
Proximate composition analysis
The protein content of the documented WUNEPs varied from 0.02 to 22.6 g/100 g (Table 1). C. crepidioides leaves represented a high protein source at 22.6 g/100 g [33, 40, 41], contributing to 34.8/37.7% of the RDA for men/women, respectively (Table 3). A 100-g portion of G. divaricata leaves, and L. leucocephala seeds and pods were found to provide more than 15% of the RDA for women (65 mg/day) and 30% for men (60 mg/day) (Table 3) [34]. Additionally, E. sumatrensis, M. esculenta, I. batatas, M. oleifera, P. melastomoides leaves, and E. punicea fruits, as well as S. nigrum berries, were also notable sources of protein, exceeding 15% of the RDA for adults (Table 3). These findings highlight the diverse range of plant-based protein sources that can significantly contribute to meeting protein requirements, serving as an alternative to soybean, which is the most commonly consumed plant-based protein source in Indonesia [42]. Fiber has been shown to have a positive impact on reducing the risk of various health conditions, including coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and gastrointestinal issues [43]. The RDA for fiber intake is 36 g/day for men and 30 g/day for women [34]. Among the documented WUNEPs, 13 have been identified as excellent sources of fiber (RDA > 30%), ranging from 10.9 to 50.9 g/100 g (Table 1). These include the fruits of M. foetida [44], E. punicea [45], P. retrofractum [46], S. koetjape [20, 47, 48], and P. emblica [49], [50], the leaves of G. divaricata [51], [52], E. sonchifolia [33, 52, 53], E. sumatrensis [54], and C. crepidioides [40], the seeds and pods of L. leucocephala [55, 56], the inner peels and leaves of M. esculenta [57, 58], and the aerial parts of S. edulis [59]. In comparison, the commonly consumed sawi hijau/leaf mustard (Brassica juncea) contains 2.5 g/100 g of fiber, providing 6.9 and 8.3% of the RDA for men and women, respectively [33, 34]. Additionally, other plants, such as E. elatior flowers [33, 60, 61], P. edule seeds [62], [33], M. oleifera [33], [63], C. barbata [64], I. batatas leaves, A. ciliata [33, 65], C. caudatus [25, 33], E. foetidum [66, 67], M. malabathricum [68], [69], A. bilimbi [70–73] P. angulata [74–77], A. dealbatum [78], F. carica fruits [79], and A. galanga rhizomes [33, 80] serve as notable sources of fiber. Consuming a 100-g portion of these plant parts can contribute to 15.2–29.7% of the recommended daily fiber intake for adults, thus making them valuable additions to a fiber-rich diet (Table 3). Nevertheless, achieving the recommended daily intake of certain plant parts that are commonly used as spices or herbal medicine, such as P. retrofractum, E. elatior, and A. galanga, can be challenging.
Mineral and vitamin content
As shown in Table 1, information on mineral content in the documented WUNEPs is limited. However, the data indicate that the majority of WUNEPs serve as excellent mineral resources. Calcium (Ca), the most abundant element in the human body, not only promotes bone health but also reduces the risk of osteoporosis and helps prevent cardiovascular diseases [81]. The leaves of G. divaricata (daun dewa) and M. oleifera (kelor/moringa) exhibit high contents of Ca, providing over 100% of the RDA per 100 g of the edible portion (Table 3). In Sundanese communities, in addition to their usage as lalap, a decoction of daun dewa is used to treat hypertension and bladder-related problems, while topical application of pounded kelor roots is used to cure toothache [15]. Other interesting sources of Ca contributed 15–87% of the 1000 mg/day RDA for Ca, which is also commonly consumed as lalap, including S. americanum (leunca, small berries), leaves of P. melastomoides (poh pohan), E. foetidum (welang), I. batatas (hui/sweet potato), B. androgyna (katuk), C. crepidioides (sintrong), and O. javanica (tespong) (Table 3). These contributions are comparatively higher than those of commonly marketed vegetables in Indonesia, such as kangkung/water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) (6.7% RDA) or selada/lettuce (Lactuca sativa) (2.2% RDA) [33, 34]. Furthermore, the studied area in West Java is a major sweet potato (hui Cilembu cultivar) cultivation area in which the leaves are regarded as postharvest waste. Considering that sweet potato leaves contain 279 mg/100 g of Ca [33, 82], they can provide 28% of the RDA for Ca. Therefore, it is recommended to include sweet potato leaves in the villager’s diet to help alleviate Ca deficiency, particularly among women in the area (unpublished result). Approximately half of the documented WUNEPs in this study were identified as iron (Fe) sources (Table 1). The edible parts of several plants have been found to contain high levels of Fe. These include A. ciliata [33, 65], E. foetidum [52, 83], E. sonchifolia [33, 52, 53], A. altilis [33, 84], S. americanum [33, 52], M. oleifera [33, 63], G. divaricata [52], I. batatas [33, 82], C. indica [33, 85], B. Pilosa [86, 87], B. androgyna [33, 88–90], S. torvum [91–93], and C. crepidioides [33, 40, 41]. A 100-g portion of their edible parts provides more than 30% of the RDA for men/women (9/18 mg/day) (Table 2). As indicated in Table 1, other plants can serve as noteworthy sources of Fe, exhibiting concentrations ranging from 1.46–5.12 mg/100 g. It is important to note that a deficiency in Fe can lead to the development of anemia [94]. According to our recent dietary survey conducted in a village in West Java, where we documented the WUNEPs, it was found that the average daily Fe intake of 107 women is 16.8 mg/day (unpublished result). This value falls below the RDA of 18 mg/day for women aged 19–49 [34], suggesting a prevalence of Fe deficiency among women in the studied area. However, in order to reach the recommended intake, it would require the consumption of 50–100 g (fresh weight) of Fe-rich plants. Therefore, the consumption of Fe-rich species should be prioritized as a dietary choice for Indonesian women and children who are experiencing anemia due to Fe deficiency. Regarding the element Zn, the edible parts of C. asiatica [13, 95], A. ciliata leaves [65], [33], and E. elatior [33, 60, 61] exhibited the highest average content. We have observed that the primary sources of Zn in the documented WUNEPs are leaves or aerial parts that are commonly consumed boiled or raw as lalap or cooked as a dish by Sundanese communities in the study area. These include C. crepidioides [33, 40, 41], E. foetidum [52, 83], L. leucocephala [33, 55], S. torvum (takokak) [91], [92, 93], M. esculenta (daun singkong) [33], and I. batatas (daun ubi) [33, 82]. With an average Zn content ranging from 1.9–5.8 mg/100 g (Table 1), a 100-g portion of these vegetables can contribute more than 30% of the RDA of Zn for adults (Table 2) [34]. This surpasses the amount of Zn provided by widely marketed broccoli (0.5 mg/100 g) and its corresponding contribution to the RDA for men/women (4.5/6.3%).
Numerous documented WUNEPs are found to be a rich source of vitamin C compared to some commonly consumed fruits and vegetables (Table 1). For example, the average vitamin C content in P. emblica [49, 50] and A. occidentale (Kongkachuichai et al., 2015; MoH RI, 2018) is five and three times greater, respectively, than that of papaya [33]. Moreover, it has been found that the rukam fruit (F. rukam) [20, 33, 97, 98] contains three times the amount of vitamin C as the average orange (C. sinensis) [33]. The edible parts of these WUNEPs offer more than 100% of the RDA for vitamin C (90/75 mg/day for men/women) [34]. Other plants, such as B. androgyna [33, 89], M. esculenta (leaves and tuber) [33], C. caudatus [25, 33], A. bilimbi [70–72], E. foetidum [66, 67, 83], D. zibethinus [99–102], L. flava [33], A. galanga [33], L. siceraria [33, 103, 104], P. angulata [74, 75], C. crepidioides [40], B. pilosa [86], A. bunius [105, 106], M. odorata [33], B. hispida [107, 108], A. jiringa [33], and S. cumini [33, 109], have also been reported to possess a high content of vitamin C, with average values between 30.9 and 168 mg/100 g. Consuming a 100-g portion of these edible parts is sufficient to provide more than 30% of the RDA of vitamin C for adults (Table 3). Although there have been numerous documented WUNEPs that are regarded as vitamin C sources and are eaten raw as snack fruit or lalap, a few of them, such as B. androgyna and M. esculenta leaves, are usually cooked. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that the processing of food significantly affects this particular vitamin [110]. It has been reported that the process of boiling M. esculenta leaves for five minutes leads to a notable reduction in the concentration of vitamin C [111].
What are the factors contributing to the decline in the use of WUNEPs?
Numerous factors are changing the way people use wild food plants worldwide, with socio-cultural influences emerging as the primary causes of their declining consumption. In Eastern Bhutan, a decrease in market demand contributed to a decline in the intake of wild edible fruits [112], while income-driven diversification affected the consumption of wild food plants in Zimbabwe [113]. However, our observation at our study site highlights a perceived reduction in availability as one of the primary ecological factors causing the decline in consumption of WUNEPs. This finding is consistent with the results of a study conducted in other regions in West Java, Indonesia [18], West Sumatra, Indonesia [23], and Gujarat, India [114]. Despite global downward trends [11, 115], the utilization of wild plants, particularly leafy greens, appears to be more pervasive in Asia [116]. Our findings further identified changes in land use as major contributors to the reduced WUNEP availability in the study area. In line with this, FAO [117] also recognizes land-use change as one of the most widespread threats to the utilization of wild food plants, along with habitat alteration, pollution, and deforestation.
In addition to reduced availability, another reason for limited consumption of WUNEPs was a lack of knowledge about identifying species and understanding their nutritional benefits. Limited information regarding the nutrient composition of wild foods is a well-known obstacle to their valorization [9, 118], which highlights the need for further research, investment, and integration into mainstream practices. The time involved in collecting WUNEPs was also restricted in their consumption, and this is likely associated with lifestyle changes that prioritize convenience [2]. Inconvenience related to accessing wild food due to their remote locations was also observed in other countries [118–120]. Lastly, we found that a shift in food preferences toward a greater variety has resulted in the neglect of wild or native species by the Sundanese community in the study area. This trend is also observed in other regions [112, 121]. However, while we discovered shifts in dietary patterns, they do not seem to be the main factors contributing to the decrease in WUNEP consumption. This is because traditional culture continues to play a prominent role, as evidenced by the ongoing consumption of lalap in their diet. Accordingly, previous Indonesian studies revealed that Sundanese communities residing in the Eastern Priangan areas and indigenous communities of Mentawai still highly value and prefer their traditional foods, thus sustaining the use of WUNEPs [22, 24].
What motivates people to continue consuming WUNEPs?
Given the current global decline in WUNEP use, research has predominantly focused on clarifying the reasons underpinning their decrease, while the motivations driving their continued consumption have garnered less attention. Recognizing these motivations can lead to more effective strategies for facilitating the necessary changes. In industrialized regions, motivations for the use of WUNEPs lean toward recreation and innovative food trends [35, 122], whereas traditional and indigenous communities value them for their critical role in diet, economy, and culture [123]. In the studied area, the main motivations for using WUNEPs were their availability as free food (Fig. 2), which is also applicable to certain vegetables. While most of the WUNEPs were naturally grown, it is also common for the Sundanese community in the study area to cultivate useful plants, including herbs and spices, in their surroundings. These plants are often grown in home yards, on allotment land, or in farm fields alongside their cash crops. This practice is widely reported in rural areas of Indonesia. Medicinal value was also perceived as an essential aspect of WUNEPs. This is understandable, as the use of herbal medicine is widespread in Indonesia [16] and remains a significant aspect of healthcare for rural communities in the West Java area, regardless of the availability of healthcare services [15]. The taste of WUNEPs as the main reason for their consumption has also been observed in other countries [119, 120, 124]. Similar to the Sundanese communities, the Karen and Lawa communities in Thailand perceive the taste, availability, and multifunctionality of the species as the main factors in determining the importance of wild vegetables [13]. Other reasons were related to individual affective (feeling or emotional) relationships with WUNEPs, linking consumption with nostalgia. Behavior studies have demonstrated that food consumption is closely tied to memory [125]. Some respondents in our study described how eating humut (coconut heart) or boiled cariwuh (A. rupertis) brought back vivid memories of their childhood or traditional ceremonies. These plants are used to prepare the ceremonial dish called pahinum, which is served during the celebration of a newborn’s 40th day.
Correlates of WUNEP consumption
WUNEP use is a common practice among our study population; it is consumed not only in small amounts as spices, condiments, or snacks but also in significant quantities, frequently as lalap and as the main component of a dish. According to our data, WUNEP consumption frequency among the studied Sundanese communities is not associated with age, BMI status, dietary diversity quality, occupation, or household expenditure. This highlights the compelling aspect of relative democratization [38]. This is particularly noteworthy considering the notable nutritional value of WUNEPs, which is often overlooked [8, 126]. Such a situation often leads to these plants being unjustly labeled as “famine foods” and limits their recognition as coping strategies for the most impoverished segment of the population [38]. While our study did not find such a derogatory view toward WUNEPs, it may not fully represent the situation due to limitations in our study design’s ability to capture the economic diversity among respondents.
While the direct/indirect pathways to promoting WUNEP consumption have yet to be examined, our findings indicate that individuals who consume WUNEPs more frequently are also those who engage in backyard vegetable gardening, have a higher frequency of food consumption, and enjoy a greater diversity of food. This aligns with previous research on traditional food practices among indigenous communities in Ecuador [38]. In the context of the studied Sundanese communities, villagers use WUNEPs as fodder for livestock, including sheep, goats, and cattle. Some macro- and micronutrient-rich WUNEPs, such as sintrong, poh pohan, jotang (A. ciliata), jalantir (E. sumatrensis), welang, and antanan, are among the staple fodders. Therefore, it is likely that an increased and diverse livestock inventory is linked to a higher frequency of WUNEP consumption.
Implications for an integrated approach to the sustainable use of WUNEPs
The nutritional significance of the documented WUNEPs is apparent, as many of them provide essential nutrients and have a higher nutritional value compared to common vegetables [35, 37, 127]. Therefore, promoting the inclusion of these plants in diets could improve the nutritional status of not only indigenous and rural populations [13, 128, 129] but also the rest of the population [5]. This is particularly relevant given that malnutrition is a public health concern linked to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of many developing nations [1], including Indonesia [2]. Nonetheless, such nutrient-rich biodiversity is often undervalued and excluded from policy and decision-making processes related to food systems, food security, and nutrition [130]. This is partly due to limited scientific evidence [11], a lack of awareness regarding their untapped potential, and the presence of market and non-market barriers [5]. This results in lost opportunities and, ultimately, the implementation of more expensive or less sustainable interventions. Despite the growing recognition of the health and environmental benefits of consuming diverse, nutrient-rich foods and improving diets as significant health and economic objectives [131, 132], there is still a need for further action to ensure optimum impact at both the national and local levels.
As a foundation for providing scientific evidence and raising awareness of the potential of WUNEPs, the existing information, including data from PROSEA [133], national food composition tables/Tabel Komposisi Pangan Indonesia [33], and available ethnobiological studies, can be leveraged. A cross-sectoral policy platform should be established nationally, bringing together decision-makers (government agencies), research and extension services, and academia. This platform would broadly identify policies and strategies for the use of WUNEP and nutrient-rich biodiversity. Key entry points can include government strategies aimed at promoting biodiversity production and consumption, such as the Indonesia Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (IBSAP) [19], the roadmap for local food diversification [134], Pola Pangan Harapan (Desirable Diet Pattern) [135], and Isi Piringku (On My Plate) [136]. Moreover, the government can support academic and NGO projects that promote agrobiodiversity and traditional foods. For instance, the Food, Agrobiodiversity, and Diet (FAD) project in West Sumatra has raised awareness of wild food plants, leading to improved nutrition for local communities [23].
Considering the gradual disappearance of WUNEPs from nature, promoting their biodiversity for improved nutrition must be accompanied by promoting their sustainable use. While we did not find overharvesting to be the primary reason for the decreasing trend of WUNEP use in the study area, it is noteworthy that overharvesting, or using entire plants or roots, should be avoided in order to preserve these valuable resources [137]. In their study, Borelli et al. [5] proposed an integrated approach to developing plans and strategies for the utilization and conservation of wild food plants. This approach involves engaging and guiding various stakeholders and actors to take action in order to ensure the sustainable use and preservation of wild food plants for future generations. In contrast, Pratama et al. (2019) argue that the lack of knowledge and use of WUNEPs may also contribute to the decline of these species, particularly when combined with land use change and other pressures on biodiversity. This balanced act of sustainable utilization has, therefore, become a mandate for the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) 2011–2020 under the Conventions on Biological Diversity (CBD) (https://www.cbd.int/gspc/).
At the community level, however, we argue that the sustainable use and conservation of these WUNEPs should be integrated into the social-ecological system in which the species are observed. In addition to further valorizing and promoting individual WUNEPs, households, and local communities use WUNEPs in relation to their presence in their local ecologies. Maintaining the integrity of this local ecosystem is equally important. This has been partially addressed by the West Java Government through programs like Buruan Sae [138], which promote the use of backyard gardens as a source of local food. However, WUNEPs were not explicitly recognized.
In this regard, the government could support and incentivize local initiatives focused on agrobiodiversity or agroecological production. In Indonesia, particularly in West Java, there has been a notable rise in alternative and local food initiatives [139]. These initiatives have experienced significant growth, transforming into collaborative networks and movements that have the potential to impact the governance of the agricultural sector at both local and national levels. A noteworthy example is the Komunitas 1000 (1000 Gardens Community), a hub comprising over 300 sustainable gardening groups in Bandung, West Java. Its primary goals include promoting access to healthy food through sustainable farming, empowering urban farmers, and establishing a value chain for healthy and sustainable produce [139]. Such a community-led local food movement can offer an opportunity for Indonesian policymakers to facilitate the development of market networks from downstream to upstream while also raising awareness about the biodiversity of WUNEPs among the general public. Taking WUNEPs into consideration in policy-making is particularly timely, especially considering that Indonesia is currently embarking on efforts to transform its food system into a more sustainable one [140]. By incorporating the conservation and utilization of WUNEPs, Indonesia can make progress toward its sustainability goals and ensure a healthier and more resilient future for its food system.
One of the limitations of this study is the self-reported dietary record data used to determine dietary intake, which may be subject to individual interpretation bias. The identified dietary patterns may not represent the participants’ usual patterns, as they were based on a one-day weighted household dietary record. Moreover, given the survey’s cross-sectional design, the possibility of seasonal variation was also not considered. However, the assessment method can provide accurate averages [141]. Moreover, follow-up focus group discussions and intensive interviews to triangulate the findings are currently being conducted. Another limitation of this study is the lack of laypeople’s perspective on documenting the WUNEPs because this study attempted to highlight all available WUNEPs in the studied area. Although the survey was limited to only three villages in a rural site, we believe that the results sufficiently represent rural Sundanese communities’ practice regarding WUNEPs in West Java but may not be necessarily generalizable to other populations in Indonesia.
Finally, replicating this research based on a case study in other regions is advisable to elucidate more comprehensive information on WUNEPs’ contribution to improved nutrition.