Carbon Cycle Perturbations and Environmental Change of the Middle Permian and Late Triassic paleo-Antarctic Circle

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3360764/v1

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Carbon Cycle Perturbations and Environmental Change of the Middle Permian and Late Triassic paleo-Antarctic Circle

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3360764/v1

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published 28 Apr, 2024

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During the Middle Permian through the Triassic, Tasmania moved from paleo-latitudes of 78° to 69°S, wedged between Antarctica and Australia, within the paleo-South polar circle. During this time, significant global carbon cycle disturbances triggered major environmental and climatic change and mass extinction events globally. The Bicheno-5 core from Eastern Tasmania, Australia, provides the opportunity to examine Mid-Permian and Upper Triassic sediments from the paleo-Antarctic, using high-resolution organic carbon isotope (δ¹³C_TOC) chemostratigraphy, pXRF, and sedimentology, combined with new palynological data integrated with the existing radiometric age model. While there is a significant unconformity in the Upper Permian to the Middle Triassic associated with eustatic sea-level fall as a result of regional uplift in eastern Australia, three distinct carbon isotope excursions (CIEs), characterized by negative shifts of up to -6‰ were identified; the Late Permian Guadalupian Carbon Isotope Excursions (G-CIE), the Carnian Pluvial Episode (CPE), and the mid-Norian Event (MNE). These three events highlight a significant climate shift through glacial and interglacial cycles to warmer non-glacial intervals in the Late Triassic, with evidence of the polar record of the Carnian Pluvial Episode and the mid-Norian Event, which are poorly studied in the Southern Hemisphere, specifically within the Paleo-Antarctic circle.

Supplementary material: A detailed chemostratigraphy data and palynomorph plate are available at https://doi.org/xxxx.

Earth and environmental sciences/Biogeochemistry/Carbon cycle

Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Palaeoclimate

Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geochemistry

Carnian Pluvial Episode

Carbon Isotopes

Southern Hemisphere

Late Permian

Norian

Carbon Cycle Perturbation

Environmental Perturbation

The end-Permian Mass Extinction (EPME, 252 Ma) represents an interval of significant disruption and global change driven by the emplacement of the Siberian Traps Large Igneous Province (LIP; eg. Reichow et al. 2009; Burgess et al. 2017; Fielding et al., 2020; Vajda et al. 2020; Frank et al., 2021; McLoughlin et al. 2021) marked by an estimated extinction of 97% of marine organisms and on land 49% of tetrapod families on land(Krull et al., 2004; Korte and Kozur, 2010; Song et al., 2013; Saitoh and Isozaki, 2021; Wu et al., 2021). Following the EPME was a period of recovery that is thought to have lasted around 5 million years, marked by more arid conditions globally and with notable recovery by the Middle Triassic (cf. Korte and Kozur, 2010; Dal Corso et al., 2020; Saitoh and Isozaki, 2021). While the EPME is considered one of the most significant extinction events on Earth, before the onset of the event and following the prolonged recovery, the Earth experienced other major carbon cycle perturbations associated with substantial environmental and climatic change, including, but not limited to, Olsen’s Extinction (~273 Ma late Cisuralian to early Guadalupian; Brocklehurst et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2020), the Guadalupian Carbon Isotope Excursion (G-CIE) ending in the Capitanian Extinction Event (~262 Ma; Wang et al., 2004; Isozaki et al., 2007a; Lai et al., 2008; Bond et al., 2010a, 2015; Saitoh et al., 2013; Detian et al., 2013; Nishikane et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2018; Saitoh and Isozaki, 2021; Li et al., 2022; 2023), the Carnian Pluvial Episode (CPE, ~232–234 Ma; Dal Corso et al., 2012, 2015, 2021; Mueller et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016, 2020; Miller et al., 2017; Li et al., 2020, 2022; Fu et al., 2020; Tomimatsu et al., 2021; Peng et al., 2022; Cho et al., 2022) and the mid-Norian Event (MNE, ~215 Ma; Onoue et al., 2016; Jin et al., 2022) leading up to the end-Triassic Mass Extinction (eg. Hallam, 2002, Davies et al. 2017, Wignall and Atkinson, 2020). Records of these events are relatively common from the Northern Hemisphere (e.g., Krull and Retallack, 2000; Wit et al., 2002; Ward et al., 2005; Coney et al., 2007; Hornung et al., 2007; Retallack et al., 2007; Tabor et al., 2007; Retallack and Jahren, 2008; Thomas et al., 2010; Birgenheier et al., 2010; Shen et al., 2013; Mancuso et al., 2020; Lucas, 2017; Peng et al., 2022) but there is a lack of high-resolution records of these events from high-latitude Southern Hemisphere localities. Here we present new evidence of these events from a drill core recovered in Eastern Tasmania, known as Bicheno-5, including high-resolution carbon isotope chemostratigraphy, elemental and sedimentological data (pXRF and hylogging), as well as a palynological assessment. These data are combined with previously published geochronology, allowing the identification of three major carbon cycle and environmental perturbations; the Late Permian G-CIE, the CPE, and the MNE. Importantly these records highlight the impact of carbon cycle perturbations in the paleo-Antarctic circle, as, during the Middle Permian, Tasmania was at a paleo-latitudes of 78^°S, moving Northward to 69^°S by the Late Triassic (Fig. 1).

The Guadalupian (Middle Permian, ~262 Mya) mass extinction event is associated with a significant negative CIE of >-5 ‰ disrupting the otherwise positive carbon isotope trend in Mid-Permian sediments (cf. Wang et al., 2004; Isozaki et al., 2007a, 2007b; Lai et al., 2008; Wignall et al., 2009; Bond et al., 2010a; Detian et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2020; Li et al., 2023). This event is typically interpreted to be associated with an overall climatic cooling, a drop in biological productivity both on land and in the oceans, and the demise of many photosynthetic marine taxa (Wang et al., 2004; Isozaki et al., 2007a, 2007b; Detian et al., 2013; Nishikane et al., 2014), formation of ocean stratification and anoxia (Saitoh et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015), sea-level change (Wang et al., 2004; Lai et al., 2008; Wei et al., 2018), and methane release (Retallack and Jahren, 2008; Bond et al., 2010b). The Guadalupian CIE (G-CIE) coincides with the emplacement of the Emeishan LIP in Southwest China between ~257–260 Ma (eg. Shellnutt et al., 2008, 2012; Wignall et al., 2009; Bond et al., 2010a, Huang et al. 2022). However, the link between the emplacement of the Emeishan LIP, the G-CIE, extinction, and evidence of the global extent of the event is still heavily debated, owing to the lack of chronologically well-constrained high-resolution carbon isotope records.

The CPE, (ca. ~232–234 Ma, Bernardi et al. 2018) is a defining point in the Late Triassic, marked by a significant climate shift to more wet and humid conditions globally. It is associated with carbon cycle perturbations of up to -6 ‰ (cf. Dal Corso et al., 2012, 2015, 2018; Sun et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020, 2022; Tomimatsu et al., 2021), changes in land biota including a notable global shift from a conifer-dominated forest community to a fern-dominated community suggestive of increased humidity (Peng et al., 2022), and the extinction of some Triassic crinoid taxa (Simms and Ruffell, 2018). The CPE is also considered a critical event leading to the rise and diversification of dinosaurs (Benton et al., 2018; Bernardi et al., 2018). The rapid switch between arid to more humid conditions, caused significant plant extinctions and subsequent ecological shifts, enabling explosive diversification, and radiation, especially of herbivorous dinosaurs (Singh et al., 2021; Zhang et al. 2023). It is linked to the emplacement of the Wrangellian Terrian LIP in the North Pacific (cf. Dal Corso et al., 2012; Jin et al. 2023 ); however, more detailed studies are needed to understand the global nature and impact of the CPE. To date carbon isotope records of the CPE are limited to China (eg. Sun et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020, 2022, Jin et al. 2023 ), Japan (Tomimatsu et al., 2021), the UK (Miller et al., 2017, Baranyi et al., 2019), the Barents Sea (Mueller et al., 2016), the NW Tethys (Italy and Hungary; Dal Corso et al., 2012, 2015, 2018;), the Indian Himalayas (Hornung et al., 2007), and Argentina (Mancuso et al., 2020). The evidence of the CPE from Argentina derives from a relatively low-resolution carbonate carbon-isotope record and does not show the typical CPE stepped excursion; however, it does provide a relatively precise U-Pb age of 234.47 ± 0.44 Ma in the Carnian-aged lower Los Rastros Formation above which evidence for the CPE is recorded. This section also provides evidence of the hydrological cycle intensification based on clay mineralogy and paleontological evidence of the rapid diversification of dinosaurs during the Carnian (Mancuso et al., 2020).

The MNN carbon cycle perturbation typically has a magnitude of -2–3 ‰ (Onoue et al., 2016) and evidence of a drop in atmospheric CO₂ during a period typically marked by relatively high atmospheric CO₂ values, as estimated from pedogenic carbonate data (Kent and Clemmensen, 2021). The climate was mainly dry, with a gradual increase in humidity beginning in the late Norian (Berra, 2012; Haas et al., 2012, 2017). An extraterrestrial bolide impact at ~215.5 Ma identified from the 90-km-diameter Manicouagan crater in Canada is postulated as the main driver of this event (eg. Walkden et al., 2002; Onoue et al., 2016; Clutson et al., 2018; Sato et al., 2020). It is associated with intense aridity in the tropical desert belts; unstable climate(Kent and Clemmensen, 2021); a shutdown of primary productivity in the oceans, following the impact, as demonstrated by the decline in biogenic silica and burial fluxes of radiolarian silica, and the proliferation of siliceous sponges (Sato et al., 2020). The shift to more humid climatic belts, which starts in the Norian, is often associated with the dispersal of dinosaurs further north (Kent and Clemmensen, 2021) and ultimately ended the prolonged arid climate that dominated the Triassic.

These three events are characterized by significant ecological and environmental change. In order to understand how these events affected global processes such as weathering rates, the carbon cycle, and climate, we need to examine records spanning the North, mid-latitudes, and paleo-South. Here we present a new high-resolution record from the Bicheno-5 core, Llandaff coalfield, Eastern Tasmania, Australia (Fig 1) representing a unique view into the southern polar circle during this critical interval of Earth’s History.

Age, Lithostratigraphy, and Geochemistry of Bicheno-5

Bicheno-5 comprises 300 m sediments belonging to the Lower and Upper Parmeener Supergroup spanning the Guadalupian (Middle Permian) to the Norian (Late Triassic), with a significant unconformity spanning the latest Middle Permian to late Ladinian (Forsyth, 1987). The sediments were deposited in the Tasman intracratonic Basin, located in the most distal part of a foreland basin system on the convergent Panthalassan Margin that stretched along Gondwana from western Argentina to northern Queensland (Stacey, 2009, Fig. 1.).

The upper part of the core (Unit 4, Fig. 2) contains a welded tuff below Jurassic dolerites that has been dated to 216 ± 2 Ma using K-Ar (Bacon & Green 1984, Fig. 2. ). More recent work by Calver et al. (2021) of a tuff stratigraphically lower than the level dated by Bacon & Green (1984) in correlative cores GY27, FT28B, and in outcrop successions in the Dennison River area has provided new U-Pb ages of 217.84 ± 0.19 Ma, 218.19 ± 0.11 Ma and 218.09 ± 0.09 Ma, respectively, the relative position of the ages within the Upper Parmeener Supergroup and correlation to Bicheno-5 is shown in Fig. 2. Similarly, the Mount Nichols Coal Measure in N-E Tasmania shows complementary palynological evidence (Calver et al., 2021) to that presented below for Bicheno-5, confirming the Late Triassic, Carnian–Norian age of the upper part of the core.

The Middle Permian sediments include the marine and glaciomarine strata known as the upper marine sequence of the Lower Parmeener Supergroup (Fig. 2, Fig. 3, 217–300m, Forsyth et al. 1974). While the Late Triassic sediments represent the fluvial deposits of the upper freshwater sequence of the Upper Parmeener Supergroup (Forsyth et al., 1974. Figure 2, 6.5–217m, Fig. 3). In some parts of North-eastern Tasmania, there is a hiatus in the Upper Permian to Lower Triassic sedimentary successions, representing a break in sedimentation possibly due to eustatic sea-level fall as a result of regional uplift in eastern Australia (Forsyth, 1987) or post-depositional erosion within the lower section (Unit 1) of the Upper Freshwater Sequence. Thus the record of the End Permian Extinction and the Permian–Triassic boundary is missing in Bicheno 5.

The Middle Permian of N-E Tasmania (Kungurian–Capitanian; interval 217–300 m)

The Lower Parmeener Supergroup in Bicheno-5 consists primarily of the Upper Marine sequence, which includes calcarenite limestone (282.1–300 m), richly-fossiliferous siltstone (264.5–282.1 m), conglomerate followed by glauconitic sandstone occurring at 267.1–264.3 m, and siltstone-dominated deposit with some evidence of dropstones (217–264.3 m). Palynological data from the Upper Marine Sequence of Bicheno-5 and the nearby correlative Bicheno-10 core (Calver et al. 1984; Fig. 2), indicate a Cisuralian, specifically Kungurian to Guadalupian age (~ 283.3 to 259.55 Ma, Australian Palynostratographic Permian zone, APP 3 and 4; Calver et al. 1984 with updates adapted from Martini and Banks, 1989; Laurie et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2017). These palynostratigraphic stages have in recent years also been correlated to high precision U-Pb geochronology across the Sydney Basin, further constraining and confirming the assignment of ages of these zones with the Geological Time Scale (cf. Laurie et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2017; Vajda et al., 2020; Mays et al., 2020).

Three samples were analyzed for palynology from the interval of 289.1 m, 257.8 m, and 233.3 m. The sample from 233.3m displays a well-preserved and abundant palynoflora of low diversity, overwhelmingly dominated by terrestrial palynomorphs and with only a few marine/ brackish water algal taxa. Small, non-taeniate bisaccate pollen of possible Voltsialean affinity dominate the assemblage but monosaccate pollen also occur. Trilete spores are subordinate, but importantly the zonal key taxon for the top of APP4 Didecitriletes ericianus is present, indicating a Capitanian age, and so are smooth, trilete spores, including Microbaculatispora spp. Other genera of importance are Vittatina and several specimens of monosulcate pollen, possibly representing pteridospermalen (‘seed-ferns’).

In both samples from 289.1 m and 257.8 m, the assemblage is poorly preserved with a high amount of amorphous organic matter due to post-depositional degradation. Specifically, in the sample from 257.8 m, the assemblage is extremely sparse, although several specimens of the key-taxon Phaselisporites cicatricosus were identified. This spore has a first appearance datum at the base of Zone APP3 (Fig. 2).

The oldest sample, 289.1 m, potentially from the P. sinuosus assemblage zone, hosts a palynological assemblage typical of a marine depositional environment. Structured palynomorphs, including the algae Tasmanites spp., and non-taeniate bisacate pollen grains occur together with coniferous phytoclasts. However, no zonal key taxa were identified.

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is relatively low, < 1%, in the Lower Parmeener Supergroup, especially in the limestone-dominated portion of the Permian (268–300 m; Fig. 3). However, the TOC increases slightly to ~ 1.3% in some of the siltstone deposits. The K /Al ratio shows a two-stage decrease in at 242–258 m and 223–230 m, whereas Si/Al and Ti/Al ratio are more stable with average values of 7 and 0.3 respectively.

A negative CIE of -5.4‰ in δ¹³C_TOC is observed in the lowermost limestone units of the core (to 279–300 m, middle Permian Negative CIE (mPN) 1, Kungurian to Roadinian APP3; Fig. 3), with the lowest values of -28.43‰. Two further excursions with values down to -27.33‰ (257.6 m; mPN2) and − 27.38‰ (225.3 m; mPN3) are identified in the Guadalupian Lower Parmeener glaciomarine deposits (Fig. 3).

Triassic of N-E Tasmania (Induan–Norian)

Early Triassic (Induan–Olenekian; interval 210.4–217 m)

Early Triassic sediments representing Unit 2 of the Upper Parmeener Supergroup are relatively thin in Bicheno-5 (210–217 m; Fig. 2). This unit unconformably overlies the Middle Permian sediments and is disconformably overlain by the upper Ladinian (APT3) Unit 3 Quartz and Lithic Sandstone of the Upper Parmeemer Supergroup. Unit 2 comprises of quartz sand deposited in a fluvial system flowing southeasterly from the highlands of northeast Tasmania (Stacey, 2009). This quartz-rich sandstone sequence and related rock types (Unit 2) were deposited during the Griesbachian to pre-Anisian (Forsyth, 1987; Calver et al. 2021) but contain significant extraclasts and pebbles from the underlying Lower Parmeneer Super Group (Threader et al. 1981). The TOC is very low, with values < 0.25%. Si/Al ratios are comparatively higher than elsewhere in the core with values up to 12.1, while K values are below the detection limit due to the extremely high silica content in this interval. Aside from silica domination, kaolin and minor carbonates are also present.

Late Middle to Late Triassic (6.5–210.4 m; Ladinian–Norian)

The uppermost c. 210 m of Bicheno-5 represents Unit 3 (Ladinian) and Unit 4 (Carnian–Norian) of the Upper Parmener Supergroup and includes fluvial lithic to volcanolithic sandstones and mudstones with some thin coal units of the Mount Nichols Coal Measure (Calver et al., 2021). A coal bed with a thickness of 1.1 meters is also present at the base of unit 4 in the Bicheno-5 core (166.4–167.5 m).

Seven samples for palynological analysis were selected from the interval of 10.5 m, 36.9 m, 83.4 m, 120.15 m, 154.1 m, 167.4 m, and 200.05 m (Fig, 3). The sample collected from 200.05 m represents an entirely continental assemblage with pollen, spores, phytoclasts, and abundant fragments of leaf cuticles assigned to the corystosperm Dicroidium. Based on the presence of the index taxon Aratrisporites parvispinosus we refer this sample to the Aratrisporites parvispinosus Zone (APT 3). Associated taxa in this sample include Cyathidites minor, Alisporites australis, Uvaesporites spp., and Acanthotriletes microspinosus.

The assemblages from samples collected from the interval 10.5–167.4 m clearly show an affinity with the Craterisporites rotundus (APT4) Zone containing a typical mid-Late Triassic flora dominated by Alisporites spp. chiefly produced by Dicroidium. Minor but important elements include the spore taxa Aratrisporites spinosus, Limbosporites denmeadi (FAD at 153.3 m), Cyathidites minor, C. australis, Densoisporites spp., Stereisporites spp., and Striatella seebergensis. Pollen taxa occurring in low portions include monosulcate pollen grains possibly produced by Ginkgoales and by ‘seed-ferns’ belonging to the Peltaspermales (Vajda et al. 2023). This age agrees with the palynostratigraphic zone and age determinations for Unit 3 and 4 from Calver et al., (2021) on correlative cores FT82B and GY27 for Units 3 and 4 in the Mount Nichols Coal Measure.

The TOC values in mudstone-dominated deposits (167.4–168.65 m; 154.6–155.7 m; 109–123 m) are significantly higher than in the sandstone-dominated deposits (eg. 156–166 m; 141.75–153 m; 123.3–128.8 m), with values up to 8.15% compared to 0.02% in the sandstones. The Si/Al and K/Al vary, potentially cyclically, with the highest values in the late Carnian period (i.e., ~ 80–100 m).

The δ¹³C_TOC in the Carnian age sediments of the core (141.3–169 m) shows a negative CIE (CN) with four marked steps of -27.59‰ (CN1, 164.55 m), -27.8‰ (CN2, 161.9 m), -28.51‰ (CN3, 157.05 m), and − 27.32‰ (CN4, 141.8 m). CN3 is marked by an abrupt positive shift of 3.4‰, which correlates with an abrupt change in lithology from lithic sandstone to mudstone. The final excursion CN4 represents an interval of significant variability in the isotope values with values ranging from − 27.32‰. to -24.06‰, which also coincides with a lithological change to more mud-dominated deposits. This interval is accompanied by a marked increase in TOC with values up to 8%. Si/Al and K/Al show significant shifts at the base of the CPE, specifically in CN1, where a marked increase in Si/Al and Ti/Al ratio occurs.

Norian age sediments show a decrease in thin coal deposits and a return to more fluvial sand and overbank mud deposits. This interval is marked by a ~ 2‰ negative CIE (mNN, 47.6–66 m) with values as low as -28.21‰ (64.4 m), although there is no notable change in the TOC during the excursion (~ 1%). TOC values increase following the excursion to > 2% (~ 45m). In addition to the increase in TOC following the MNE there is a significant change in the Ti/Al with a prolonged decrease in values, while the δ¹³C_TOC returns to more typical background values of -25‰ with some variability but no significant negative perturbations.

The combined δ¹³C_TOC and chronology of Bicheno-5 suggests the presence of three significant CIEs that can be correlated to globally recognized events, namely the Guadalupian Middle Permian CIE, the Carnian CIE (associated with the CPE) and the middle Norian CIE.

The Gaudalupian CIE (Middle Permian) in Bicheno-5 can be correlated with sediments recovered from boreholes in Chaohu, China (Zhang et al., 2020; Fig. 3). These boreholes represent radiometrically and palynologically age-controlled high-resolution carbon isotopes and XRF. The sub-CIE episodes from the late Kungurian (mPN1) and Wordinian (mPN2) are similar in magnitude to those from the Chaohu borehole (~ -3‰), while the Capitanian (mPN3) has a slightly different magnitude. In Bicheno-5, the Capitanian (mPN3) δ¹³C_TOC values decrease by 1.75‰, to a value of -27.38‰, compared to a negative shift of only − 0.75‰ to ~ -26‰ in the boreholes from the Gufeng Formation Chaohu, China (Zhang et al., 2020). Similar trends in δ¹³C_TOC for this interval have been noted in the Sydney Basin, Australia with values as heavy as -25.19‰ recorded in the Kungurian–Roadian (Birginheier et al. 2010). In Bicheno-5, values of ~ -27‰ are observed in the Kungurian–Roadian, significantly heavier and likely reflecting similar depositional and/or environmental changes as in the Sydney Basin. Both mPN2 and mPN3 coincide with deglaciation episodes from Eastern Australia (P3 and P4 phases, Bergeinher et al., 2010), which increased the terrestrial sediment influx to the marine system. The increase in Si, Al, and K content in Bicheno − 5 indicates such a change.

A decrease in K/Al ratios is typically indicative of stronger chemical weathering. Al tends to be preserved and enriched due to weathering (Nesbitt et al., 1997), while K is enriched after mild chemical weathering, but it is depleted after extreme chemical weathering (Condie et al., 1995). The lowering K/Al ratio upward into younger strata observed during both mPN2 and mPN3 shows an increasedflux of clay and mayindicate a higher degree of chemical weatheringon land (Wei et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2013; Clift et al., 2014).

The four pronounced CIEs observed in the Carnian of Bicheno-5 (CN1-4, CPE Fig. 3) exhibit a similar magnitude of around 3–5‰. The record correlates well in both magnitude of the excursion and steps with the record of the Carnian Pluvial Episode CIEs observed in other continental successions such as the Wiscombe Park (WP) borehole, Devon, UK (Miller et al., 2017, shown in Fig. 3.), the Jiyuan Basin North China (Lu et al., 2021) and the NW Tethys Marine-Marginal Marine composite (Dal Corso et al., 2012, 2015). Si and Al show a relatively low coefficient correlation, particularly in the Triassic section (0–217 m) as the influx of sand and clay is independent, typical of a fluvial environment.

In the Upper Parmeener Supergroup, the elemental ratio is very much affected by the rapid depositional changes from various facies in the fluvial-lacustrine environment such as the channels, bars, oxbows, swamps, etc. Particularly in the base of the CPE section, there is a shift of Si/Al and K/Al ratio but the Ti/Al remains relatively steady showing no significance. Coal seams first appear at the base of the proposed CPE, silica dominates the fluvial-lacustrine system although following the CPE there is an increase in smectite and chlorite as indicated by HyLogging data. The increase of smectite and the occurrence of thin coal seams may be indicative of more warm-humid conditions that lead to increased vegetation and chemical weathering leading to clay formation (Abdullayev and Leroy, 2018; Zhang et al., 2021).

The Middle Norian CIE (MNE; Berra, 2012; Onoue et al., 2016; Haas et al., 2017; Sato et al., 2020; Kent and Clemmensen, 2021; Jin et al., 2022) is correlated with the Sakahogi section, Japan (Onoue et al., 2016). During the MNE the increase in Ti/Al does not accompany an increase of Si/Al and K/Al, and the log shows no significant increase in more coarse-grained sediment. The stable values of Si/Al, peak of K and Ti values, reflect a relatively stable sandstone-dominated fluvial environment.

The change in Ti content in the mid-Norian may be associated with changes in mineralogy and provenance of the sandstones. Fluvialy reworked volcanolithic sandstone begins to dominate the system indicating the sediment source changed from the Beardmore-Ross Upland to a magmatic arc. Likely due to the foreland basin's westward migration towards the craton and the demise of the fore-swell (Stacey and Berry, 2004). Although the strata during the mNE are still dominated by sandstone, there is evidence from the hylogging data of more clay minerals (specifically smectite) above the height of 67 m in comparison to the und lying sediment, which could be indicative of more humid conditions (eg. Abdullayev and Leroy, 2018; Zhang et al., 2021). Ti/Al reverts to its normal baseline composition with decreasing smectite, k-feldspar and plagioclase, and dominant silica following the mNE.

The high-resolution δ¹³C_TOC record from N-E Tasmania preserves multiple carbon-isotope excursions across the Middle Permian and Late Triassic, as well as evidence of significant climate variability near the paleo-South pole. Three major carbon isotope excursion (CIE) intervals characterized by negative shifts of up to 6‰ were recognized; the Middle Permian, Late Triassic Carnian, and middle Norian. These CIEs can further be correlated with global δ¹³C_TOC records from the paleo-Pacific Ocean (Panthalassa), Southwest England, and South China. These carbon cycle perturbations triggered climatic change and environmental responses, reflected in the sedimentology and weathering proxies. The records reflect the complex interplay between the changing continental configuration of Pangea, driven by the emplacement of Large Igneous Provinces, carbon cycle perturbations and climate. Tasmania in the Permian and Triassic occupied a position today occupied by Antarctica and the Antarctic circle. The record from Bicheno-5 highlights the significant impact on weathering and climate in the paleo-South pole due to significant perturbations of pCO₂. While further studies are needed to better understand the magnitude and duration of both the climatic change and resulting weathering and biotic fluxes during extreme events such as the CPE, especially in high latitudes, the record from the mid-Permian and Late Triassic of Tasmania highlights the potential impacts of ongoing Anthropogenic climate change in the Antarctic.

Hylogged and pXRF data were collected by Mineral Resources Tasmania (MRT) Core Library, Mornington, Tasmania. XRF data were collected every 0.5m using an Olympus Vanta M Series pXRF. The instrument uses a 4-Watt X-ray tube with application-optimized anode material (rhodium Rh and tungsten W): 8–50 kV with a large area Silicon Drift Detector. The instrument uses the built-in Olympus Vanta analysis software version 3.12.34. It was calibrated against a Jurassic dolerite. Results for SiO₂, TiO₂, Al₂O₃, and K₂O are reported in weight percent (wt %), translated into Si, Ti, Al, and K elemental masses and their ratios.

The core was scanned using a HyLogger core scanner and high-resolution digital images were acquired. Samples were taken through the 300m core at a 20 cm resolution. 558 rock samples were decalcified for organic carbon isotope analysis (cf. Al-Suwaidi et al., 2010). De-carbonated samples were dried and powdered, and analyzed using the Thermo Flash EA1112 for total carbon content (wt% TOC) and then analyzed using a Sercon Hydra 2022 isotope ratio mass spectrometer linked to a Sercon ANCA elemental analyzer that runs in continuous flow mode at Elemtex Labs, UK. Samples were standardized against USGS40 and USGS41. Replicate analysis showed a precision of ± < 0.2‰ (2 SD).

Ten samples were selected for palynological analyses from the interval 289.25–10.5 m to provide a biostratigraphical framework. Five grams of sedimentary rock/sample were processed according to standard palynological procedures at Global Geolab Limited, Medicine Hat, Canada, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) treatment. Light oxidation and sieving of the organic residues using a 5µm mesh was carried out before the organic residue was mounted in epoxy resin on two slides per sample. A hundred palynomorphs (pollen, spores, and algae) per sample were identified, and the slides were further searched for rare taxa or key species useful for palynostratigraphy.

Data Availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

Acknowledgment

Writers thank the Tasmania Department of Mines for the permission and invitation to work with its data and consolidate basic concepts from all the sources. Khalifa University of Science and Technology supports this work under the funding of CIRA-2019-066.

Author contributions statement

AA, WAL, and CPF conceived the project and sampled the core. WAL, CPF, and AA prepared and conducted the geochemical analysis. WAL and AA analyzed and interpreted organic carbon isotopes and drafted figures; WAL, DH, and AA contributed to interpreting pXRF parameters. VV and AA helped with the analysis and interpretation of palynology parameters. All authors contributed to the writing and review of the manuscript.

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No competing interests reported.

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Carbon Cycle Perturbations and Environmental Change of the Middle Permian and Late Triassic paleo-Antarctic Circle

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