The period of adolescence can prove to be demanding for students, given that they encounter a range of transformations. These encompass biological and cognitive shifts arising from maturation, alterations in their social interactions with both peers and parents, and adjustments prompted by heightened academic demands and expectations from school (Arnett, 1999; Gilmore, 2019; Eccles, 1999, Inchley et al., 2016). Accordingly, secondary school students commonly experience increased levels of psychological stress and school burnout (Bhargava & Trivedi, 2018; Burnett & Fanshawe, 1996; de Anda et al., 2000). However, there have been few studies investigating whether the self-perceived stress and overload symptoms are also related to biophysiological stress markers (e.g., cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxidative stress, telomere length). Even though students’ self-reported information is central to unlocking their feelings and thoughts, it is also susceptible to systematic error due to desired response behavior (Masood et al., 2012). By merging subjective and biophysiological stress metrics, it becomes possible to uncover intricate psychophysical mechanisms associated with stress. These insights could potentially form the foundation for interventions aimed at managing stress. While the exploration of biophysiological stress markers like cortisol and alpha-amylase has gained attention in the educational setting in recent times, the examination of biophysiological indicators associated with stress and arousal, such as oxidative stress and telomere length, has predominantly been conducted in the realm of psychopathology and health studies. Nonetheless, delving into a wide range of biophysiological markers within the educational context alongside self-report data from school students offers encouraging avenues for valuable insights, supporting the healthy development of students by identifying factors that can have a minimizing effect on students’ stress and burnout.
Both the buffering hypothesis (Cohen & Wills, 1985) as well as the Conservation of Resources theory (COR; Hobfoll, 1989) posit that supportive social relationships have the potential to mitigate sensations of stress and overwhelm, serving as crucial assets for effectively managing challenging situations. Although there are numerous findings confirming the buffering hypothesis and COR with regard to the protective effects of social support (e.g., Chohan & Khan, 2010; Hoferichter et al., 2021a; Siegmann et al., 2018), to the best of our knowledge, there has been no study to date that has also examined this approach in the interplay of self-perceived and biophysiological stress and arousal. The present study was designed to address this research desideratum by examining how social relationships with parents, teachers, and peers that are perceived as supportive moderate the relationship between subjective stress (e.g., school burnout, perceived stress) and biophysiological stress markers (e.g., cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxidative stress, telomere length).
Subjective stress, cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxidative stress, and telomere length
Psychological stress may arise if demands exceed an individual’s resources which is associated with increased threat appraisals and negative affect (Het et al., 2012; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). While psychological stress is not primarily related to a specific context, school burnout is experienced in relation to the academic context. Students often report school-related psychosomatic stress symptoms such as head-aches or dizziness if they feel pressured to receive high grades, worry about their academic performance, and feel overwhelmed by schoolwork (Moylan et al., 2013; Pascoe et al., 2020). Long-lasting and high levels of school-related psychosomatic stress symptoms make students more susceptible to school burnout, which includes exhaustion from schoolwork, feeling inadequate as a student, and adopting a cynical and detached attitude towards school (Salmela-Aro et al., 2009; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Although psychological stress and school burnout are conceptualized and measured differently, the constructs are related (Lin & Huang, 2014) and present a risk to students’ health and academic trajectories (Fiorilli et al., 2017; Gerber et al., 2015; Liu & Alloy, 2010; Ottová-Jordan et al., 2015; Ribeiro et al., 2018; Torsheim et al., 2003).
Several large-scale international surveys have demonstrated steadily increasing levels of self-reported psychological stress, school-related psychosomatic stress symptoms, and school burnout both in the cohort of secondary school students and over the last decade (Byrne et al., 2007; Eagan et al., 2016; Menasce Horowitz & Graf, 2019; Neves & Hillman, 2019; OECD, 2017). Because of this alarming increase, it is also central to combine research approaches and ask whether or to what extent self-perceived stress and burnout are related to a variety of biophysiological stress markers.
Cortisol and Alpha-amylase
Cortisol belongs to the glucocorticoid class of hormones and is commonly referred to as the “stress hormone,” while amylase is an enzyme that has been investigated as a suitable candidate to measure stress-related arousal (Ali & Nater, 2020; Nater et al., 2007). While alpha-amylase has traditionally been studied in the context of stress, research outside the clinical context has revealed its involvement in both heightened arousal of positive emotions and negative emotions experienced by individuals (Adam et al., 2011). Hence, while cortisol has been consistently linked to negative arousal related to stress, alpha-amylase is not limited specifically to stress or negative emotional valence.
While both biological indicators serve as valuable markers for detecting physiological changes in response to arousal, cortisol is reflective of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and α-amylase is a reliable index of sympathetic-adrenal medullary (SAM) activity during arousal (Nater et al., 2007; Vineetha et al., 2014). As both reflect the reactivity of distinct bodily stress systems, some studies speak of an asymmetry between the HPA axis and SAM in a bodily response to arousal (Maruyama et al., 2012) that is related to an asymmetry between cortisol and α-amylase reactivity (Gordis et al., 2006). For this reason, both act differently with respect to timely release in response to a stress-induced task (Engert et al., 2011), they relate differently to self-reported stress (Takai et al., 2004; Noto et al., 2005), and they may not be correlated according to the findings of some studies (Chatterton et al., 1996; Jõgi et al., 2023; Nater et al., 2007).
There is a general belief that long-term stress leads to an increase in cortisol levels (Smyth et al., 1998). In this case, the overactivation of the HPA axis for a prolonged period of time induces wear and tear on the stress systems, which relates to negative health outcomes (McEwen, 2006; Miller et al., 2007). In this respect, Jamieson et al. (2013) demonstrated that both challenge and threat appraisals activate the HPA axis, while threat appraisals have a stronger activation potential than challenge. Lee and colleagues have described cortisol to be an end product of threat-type stress responses (Lee et al., 2019). However, empirical studies on the relation between self-reported stress, cortisol and alpha-amylase levels among healthy individuals are rather complex.
Oxidative stress
Oxidative stress introduces an additional dimension to the detection of biophysiological stress responses. It reflects an asymmetry between the production of reactive oxygen species (commonly known as free radicals) and the protective actions of antioxidants (Betteridge, 2000). Numerous human and animal studies point to a correlation between psychosocial stress and elevated oxidative stress levels, which consequently contribute to cellular and tissue damage within the body (Felippe et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2021; Møller et al., 1996; Juszczyk et al., 2021). Nonetheless, investigations into the connection among oxidative stress and subjective stress within the school context are so far uncommon.
Telomere length
Telomeres consist of repetitive DNA sequences that provide stability to the ends of chromosomes, gradually shortening as a result of cell division over time (Blackburn, 2005). Moreover, a link has been established between psychosocial stressors and the hastening of biological aging. This linkage is attributed to chronic stress directly influencing cellular mechanisms associated with the emergence of different diseases and the reduction of telomere length (Pepper et al., 2018; Rentscher et al., 2020). While telomeres have primarily been the focus of clinical research, a recent study conducted in an educational context revealed that school students with longer telomeres were less likely to report experiencing burnout (Hoferichter et al., 2023).
In sum, empirical findings—mainly in the field of psychopathology and health studies—have indicated that cortisol, α-amylase, oxidative stress, and the length of telomeres are reliable but distinct indicators of biological stress and arousal. However, research that links these biophysiological markers with school students’ reported stress and burnout remains underdeveloped. Establishing connections between subjective and biophysiological stress linked to social support variables offers a promising strategy for preventing students from encountering psychological stress and school-related burnout, thereby promoting healthy psychological and academic development. Therefore, it is essential to identify resources that are accessible within students’ immediate environment and protect them from experiencing strain, stress-related negative affect, and feelings of being overwhelmed by school. Research has demonstrated that nurturing relationships with parents, teachers, and peers constitute significant resources that can mitigate feelings of stress in school students.
Social support and students’ stress
Social support emerges as a potent and enduring coping strategy during challenging circumstances, recognized as a fundamental cornerstone of social, psychological, and biological well-being (Hobfoll et al., 1990). Social buffering, which falls within the realm of social support, refers to the mechanism by which the presence of a similar species diminishes the activity of stress-related neurobiological systems (Gunnar & Hostinar, 2015). In a human context, Cohen and Wills (1985) introduced the buffering hypothesis, which proposes that relationships perceived as supportive serve to alleviate the impact of stress. Likewise, the Conservation of Resources Theory (COR; Hobfoll, 1989) posits that individuals endeavor to preserve their resources, including their capacity for well-being, which necessitates the utilization of resources such as supportive social relationships (Hobfoll et al., 1990). Hence, feelings of psychological stress and school burnout draw on students’ resources and consequently prompt a need for more resources, such as supportive social relationships, to help regain and maintain well-being. Many empirical studies have investigated students’ stress levels and well-being—as a counterweight to stress—in relation to their supportive relationships with parents, teachers, and peers, but their results differ depending on the measures used to capture social support, the age group investigated, and the statistical models tested.
For example, studies have found that parental support protects students from feeling overwhelmed by school and is related to low levels of student’s stress (Chohan & Khan, 2010; Kulakow et al., 2021). Parental support can buffer the impact of stress on adolescents and facilitate school enjoyment (Shen et al., 2018; Leonard et al., 2015; Seiffge-Krenke, 2019). Hostinar et al. (2015) found that social support from parents was related to lower cortisol levels in elementary school students compared to support from a stranger after students participated in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) the same did not apply to secondary school students. Raphael and Paul (2018) demonstrated that parental support measured by parent-child discussions about the future, joint school activities and parental school involvement were related to low levels of stress among secondary school students, but only in the absence of parental psychological control. The time parents spend with their children has been linked positively to children’s well-being (Li & Guo, 2023; Savahl et al., 2019) and contributes to a lesser extend of problem behavior in adolescents (Milkie et al., 2015).
Besides support from parents, support from teachers has been shown to minimize the effect of stress on externalizing problems (Huber et al., 2012) and contributes to students’ self-reported health related to stress (Hoferichter & Raufelder, 2021; Macalli et al., 2020). A study with Chinese adolescents could show that teacher support improves students’ mental well-being and resilience (Guo et al., 2020). Another study with German adolescents could show that perceived teacher support was positively related to students’ self-worth and physical well-being (Hoferichter et al., 2021a). Empirical findings from the school context suggest that students’ stress levels are buffered by perceived support from teachers (Hoferichter et al., 2014; Torsheim et al., 2003; Torsheim & Wold, 2001).
In addition, support from peers can minimize stress symptoms. Adams et al. (2011) detected that the presence of a best friend was related to low levels of cortisol during the exposure to TSST in elementary students. Investigating sAA and the reported network size of students, Ponzi et al., 2016 found that the ego reported network size was correlated with higher sAA levels, indicated higher physiological arousal of students with larger network sizes.
In quantitative questionnaire studies, the link between social support by peers—also measured by classroom climate—and students’ stress has been demonstrated consistently. For instance, Torsheim and Wold (2001) revealed that support from peers was related to lower levels of school-related stress, a finding that was also confirmed by Hoferichter et al. (2022a). Similarly, Hoferichter, and colleagues (2021b) demonstrated that from grades seven to nine, classmate support buffered the increase of anti-school attitudes, which was related to school-related stress. However, according to a health study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO), between the ages of 11 and 15, perceived support from classmates declined in nearly all of the 43 countries and regions across Europe and North America that were included in the study. Consequently, alternative social support sources, e.g., parental and teacher support or friends outside school, may compensate for the decline of peer support within the classroom.
In sum, secondary school students’ supportive relationships with parents, teachers, and peers represent valuable resources that help students overcome stressful situations and maintain their well-being. However, research on whether social support buffers the relationship between various measures of self-perceived stress and biophysiological markers linked to stress and arousal is still missing. In response to this need, the present study aligns with the recommendations of Hanssen et al. (2017) who proposed that future research on psychosocial stressors among youth should explore various stressors and explore potential factors that may moderate them. Hence, the objective is to gain a deeper understanding of the attributes of stressors and associated symptoms and to identify factors that predict vulnerability and resilience among young individuals.
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
Following the COR theory and empirical evidence, it is expected that social support from parents, teachers and peers is associated with lower levels of students’ psychological stress and school burnout (i.e., (1) exhaustion and (2) cynicism & inadequacy).
Exploratory Research Question: Given the underdeveloped state of research regarding the connection between biophysiological stress and arousal markers (i.e., cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxidative stress, telomeres) and support from parents, teachers, and peers, we do not propose a hypothesis but instead adopt an exploratory approach. Thereby it is investigated if the social support variables moderate the relationships between student’s perceived stress and burnout with their levels of cortisol, alpha-amylase, oxidative stress, and telomere lengths.