Adıbelli, D., Kırca, N., & Özkan, İ. (2022).
|
Turkey
|
To investigate the health and social challenges facing adult women working in greenhouse-based agricultural production in Turkey.
|
Women working in greenhouse agriculture over the age of 18.
|
Phenomenological study (qualitative) 22 participants.
|
Women engage in agricultural activities in addition to domestic duties. This double shift results in extreme physical fatigue and their reported lack of willingness to engage in sexual intercourse with their partners. Unwillingness to engage in sexual intercourse led to some men perpetrating violence against their wives.
|
Extent and nature.
|
Alesina, A., Brioschi, B., & La Ferrara, E. (2021).
|
Across Africa
|
To assess the relationship between cultural factors and current spousal violence in Africa.
|
DHS respondents in 21 Sub-Saharan Countries
|
Use of Demographic Health Survey (DHS) (which contains questions on domestic violence and attitudes towards domestic violence), matched with "Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas". Matching DHS and the ethnographic information created a pairing between ethnicity information with DHS responses.
|
Men have predominant role in the family and the research suggests that in these groups, DV is more common. The nature of agricultural work is also related to violence against women. Paper touches on the male backlash theory (economically independent women are seen as a threat to their partner)
|
Sociocultural; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Allen, E. M., Munala, L., & Henderson, J. R. (2021).
|
Kenya
|
To explore the relationship between severe weather events and intimate partner violence among Kenyan women.
|
DHS respondents in Kenya for 2008 and 2014.
|
DHS data collected in Kenya in 2008 and 2014 matched to GPS location of data collected for each DHS cluster. This allows for matching of DHS data about intimate partner violence (emotional, physical and sexual) with GPS locations, which in turn allow for matching with severe weather events.
|
Natural disasters and climate change exacerbate violence against women. Natural disasters in agricultural communities are correlated with IPV. The physical demands on women also increase with climate change.
|
Aggravating or protective factors.
|
Ashimolowo, O., & Otufale, G. (2012).
|
Nigeria
|
To assess domestic violence (DV) among women in Ogun State, Nigeria and explore socio-cultural factors and coping strategies.
|
220 women in farm families in Ogun State Agricultural Development zones. 30.80% of respondents were engaged in agriculture as an occupation.
|
Structured interviews.
|
To ameliorate the effect of DV on women's agricultural livelihood activities, women adopt a range of coping mechanisms. These coping strategies impact agricultural livelihoods in different ways.
|
Impacts on livelihoods.
|
Austin, A., Schouten, C. N., Hinton, J., & Lloyd, D. J. (2021).
|
Papua New Guinea (PNG)
|
To investigate the barriers to inclusion in beekeeping faced by women in the the Eastern Highlands Province (EHP) of PNG.
|
Key industry stakeholders (n = 23) in EHP. Focus Group discussions carried out with 9 participants from non-governmental organisations; workshops carried out with 12 female beekeepers.
|
Mixed methods. Semi-structured, key informant interviews. Focus group discussions with NGOs. Beekeeping workshop with female beekeepers.
|
Women are not given their fair share of income from beekeeping work. Men are more likely to support women engaging in beekeeping if they are included in the development of the process from the outset. Paper touches on important ideas of gender norms and ideas of "stopping women from participating" which could take on violent manifestations.
|
Impacts on livelihoods; aggravating or protective factors; sociocultural.
|
Ayuwat, D., & Sananikone, S. (2018).
|
Laos
|
To examine the factors underlying economic violence perpetrated by men against women in rural communities in Laos.
|
350 Lao men from households in the Santhong district of Loas.
|
Questionnaire
|
A high proportion of respondents were farmers. The paper highlights the nature of economic violence and control that some participants perpetrate against their wives, including control of their economic participation and the time they can spend outside, including engaging in farming activities.
|
Impacts on livelihoods; extent and nature.
|
Aziz, N., Nisar, Q. A., Koondhar, M. A., Meo, M. S., & Rong, K. (2020).
|
Pakistan
|
To investigate the relationship between women’s empowerment and food security in the rural areas of Azad Jammu & Kashmir.
|
600 households in 16 villages.
|
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS).
|
Paper draws a line of reasoning that women claiming land rights in highly patriarchal societies may be victims of domestic violence. There is a reluctance to claim land rights, which may impact food security and agriculture-related income, given the denial of productive land that would otherwise be claimed if there was not a concern of GBV.
|
Aggravating or protective factors; impacts on livelihoods.
|
Badstue, L., Petesch, P., Farnworth, C. R., Roeven, L., & Hailemariam, M. (2020).
|
Ethiopia
|
To examine the role of marital status in rural women’s innovative capacity in their agricultural livelihoods.
|
Women and men from various income and age backgrounds in eight community case studies in agricultural settings in Ethiopia.
|
Semi-structured life-story interviews; semi-structured innovation trajectory interviews; and focus group discussions to create case studies.
|
GBV plays a significant role in the lives of women respondents hampering their ability to engage in agricultural livelihoods, including through denial of land rights, physical violence, restrictions in mobility and sexual violence. GBV restricts women's agency in agriculture and agricultural innovation.
|
Sociocultural; impacts on livelihoods; extent and nature.
|
Bonatti, M., Borba, J., Schlindwein, I., Rybak, C., & Sieber, S. (2019).
|
Tanzania
|
To explore the role of gender in food security among families in Dodoma, Tanzania.
|
Face to face survey of 333 households in two villages, Chinoje and Mzula, Tanzania. Followed by 2 workshops for 130 people.
|
Structured surveys, followed by workshops based on Theatre of the Oppressed ("Theatre of the Oppressed (TO). Workshops explored malnutrition, food behaviour and violence in context of food security.
|
GBV is normalised in some societies, especially with patriarchal social systems and hierarchies. Women cope with oppression and violence in several ways. There are also gendered and unequal roles in agriculture, such as men controlling cash crops and women controlling food crops. These and other arrangements are at times challenged, resulting in GBV.
|
Sociocultural; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Carter, N. A., Humphries, S., Grace, D., Ouma, E. A., & Dewey, C. E. (2017).
|
Uganda
|
To investigate the perceptions of smallholder pig farmers regarding the adoption of various innovations and changes related to a pig-enterprise and decision-making mechanisms and the role that gender plays in decision-making.
|
Focus groups with 72 villagers from Masaka district in Central Region, Uganda.
|
Intervention involved the delivery of lecture-style training to local pig producers, mostly on the topic of pig nutrition and feeding Participants arranged into three gender-stratified focus groups: men (n = 24), women in male-headed households (n = 24) and women in female-headed households (n = 24) to discuss
perception of the potential impacts of adoption of improved diets for pigs and potential risks and risk mitigation associated with adoption of improved diets for pigs.
|
GBV plays a role in women's decision making to buy pigs or engage in pig businesses (GBV is used by men to assert decision making status, and this extends to decisions on agricultural livelihoods). This is particularly pronounced in women in male headed households.
|
Extent and nature; impacts on livelihoods.
|
Carvalho, L. M. d., & Bógus, C. M. (2020).
|
Brazil
|
To explore and analyse women’s participation in a grassroots urban agroecological network in São Paulo, Brazil.
|
Attendees at workshops on women's engagement in urban agriculture in Sao Paolo City, Brazil.
|
Participant observation at five women's workshops and interviews with two organisers and three participants.
|
Women use spaces for training and discussion on agriculture to discuss sensitive issues. The presence of men at such spaces is met with resistance. This led to the formation of an “agroecological popular feminist identity”, freedom from oppressive social structures and a sense of collective belonging, centred on the women’s work in urban agriculture.
|
Extent and nature; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Chen, Y. J., & Chindarkar, N. (2017).
|
India
|
To investigate the impacts of a skills training program on the socioeconomic status of rural women in two sub-districts of Sabarkantha, Gujarat, India.
|
405 people from 37 villages, 212 women, 193 men (husbands of women or their adult son).
|
Survey
|
Training results in increased intra-household conflict, which, as other research has found is common when women find increased economic opportunity and/or entre the labour market.
|
Aggravating or protective factors.
|
Chipuriro, R. M., & Batisai, K. (2018).
|
South Africa and Zimbabwe
|
To describe the nature of the impacts of GBV on women related to land use in South Africa, Zimbabwe and elsewhere.
|
21 women farmers over 55 in Mashonaland Zimbabwe. AND six (6) elderly women farmers aged between 55 and 72 from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Additional interviews with key informants.
|
Interviews, focus group discussions and life histories.
|
Patriarchal land control structures are associated with GBV. GBV is also perpetrated by male family members and neighbours with regards to issues of land access and land boundary disputes. Injuries from attacks, especially for elderly women, reduces productivity and full participation in agriculture, entrenching economic difficulties
|
Sociocultural; impacts on livelihoods; extent and nature.
|
Colfer, C. J. P., Achdiawan, R., Roshetko, J. M., Mulyoutami, E., Yuliani, E. L., Mulyana, A., Moeliono, M., Adnan, H., & Erni. (2015).
|
Indonesia
|
To understand the role that women play in decision making at various levels and to understand why women were active in decision making but invisible in other settings, such as formal meetings.
|
Thirty individuals from each of five villages in South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi. Individuals were selected in a stratified random manner, 15 of each sex (from different households).
|
Survey (using a 0 to 10 scale) on people's perceptions of their decision-making roles in four areas: food production and consumption; money management; life chances; and attitudes towards domestic violence.
|
The paper draws a link between decision-making and empowerment. While the paper indicates that GBV is highly unacceptable it also suggests that such unacceptability does not act as a proxy for equality in aspects of life and decision making. Paper also indicates that a strategy to work with men and women separately in carrying out agriculture-related programs may be a more effective strategy in settings where men hold unequal power.
|
Sociocultural; interventions.
|
Cooper, M., Sandler, A., Vitellozzi, S., Lee, Y., Seymour, G., Haile, B., & Azzari, C. (2021).
|
Global
|
To investigate the relationship between drought and the risk of intimate partner violence.
|
63 DHS surveys from sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean to assemble a data set of 363,428 women from 40 countries from the years 2000 until 2018
|
Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data was matched to Climate Hazards Group Infra-Red Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS). Researchers used DV data from the DHS and drought-related data from CHIRPS. The authors ran logistic regressions pairing women’s DHS responses on experience with IPV (outcome variable) with CHIRPS data on drought conditions in the previous year (independent variable).
|
Drought is not related to emotional or physical violence (though this research is only in Africa, Americas, and Asia. Not in PNG or Pacific). The paper does describe how drought is associated with “controlling behaviours”, however, and this presents a need to explore how GBV is defined in different contexts.
|
Aggravating or protective factors.
|
Coulthard, S., White, C., Paranamana, N., Sandaruwan, K. P. G. L., Manimohan, R., & Maya, R. (2020).
|
Sri Lanka and India
|
To explore the link between alcoholism and domestic violence in fishing households in Sri Lanka and India
|
Women in fishing villages in Sri Lanka (n = 30) and India (n = 20)
|
In depth semi-structured interviews with women in Sri Lanka (near Rekewa Lagoon) and India (near the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu), conducted over an eight-month period.
|
Women living with alcoholism and DV benefited from financial autonomy afforded to them through seaweed harvesting important. This activity allowed women to boost their status in the household and ensure their income is not spent on alcohol. Fisheries systems may be more vulnerable to high levels of alcoholism and domestic violence than others, hence, marine resource management should consider social well-being in fisheries.
|
Impacts on livelihoods; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Crookston, B. T., West, J. H., Davis, S. F., Hall, P. C., Seymour, G., & Gray, B. L. (2021).
|
Burkina Faso
|
To determine if the Building the Resilience of Vulnerable Communities in Burkina Faso (BRB), a project integrating financial services, women’s empowerment, nutrition and agricultural programs can improve women’s empowerment.
|
At baseline, the project included 760 participants, which reduced to 694 by the end of the study. Treatment group was drawn from the Sanguié province of Burkina Faso, and the comparison group members lived in the Nayala province of Burkina Faso.
|
Participants were divided into treatment and control groups. Treatment group received a comprehensive intervention package consisting of agriculture loans and services, microenterprise loans, and women's empowerment programs. All groups completed the PRO-WEAII questionnaire at baseline (May 2016) and endline (November 2017).
|
Women were more likely to have adequate empowerment in input in productive decisions, group membership, and membership in influential groups than men while men were more likely to have adequate empowerment in attitudes about domestic violence, control over use of income, and work balance than women. BRB intervention may provide some protection for the treatment group when facing an economic down-turn.
|
Sociocultural.
|
Eneyew, A., & Mengistu, S. (2013).
|
Ethiopia
|
To assess the causes and extent of gender inequality through selected socio-economic factors in pastoral and agro-pastoral societies.
|
197 households, randomly selected from 3876 households, in South Omo, Ethiopia.
|
Interviews with households using the Harvard Gender Analysis Framework. In addition to this, key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions were conducted in each village. Plus, a separate FGD for women, as the investigators identified that women were not permitted to speak in meetings if men were present.
|
Physical and psychological violence towards women is common in the study area, including female genital mutilation, wife beating and restricted access to education for girls.
|
Extent and nature; sociocultural.
|
Eves, R. (2021).
|
Papua New Guinea
|
To examine the marital relationships in Papua New Guinea's Eastern Highlands and explore sexual violence within these marriages.
|
Qualitative interviews with 64 participants (coffee farmers), questionnaires with 143 households (including 124 married couples). 35 key informants drawn from the community, including village leaders, church leaders, women’s group leaders and village court officials.
|
Mixed methods - qualitative interviews and a questionnaire. The questionnaire contained three instruments “jointly administered to couples by a male and a female researcher, and separate male and female questionnaires administered by the male researcher and the female researcher respectively”. The female questionnaire asked additional questions relating to experiences of violence.
|
A quarter of both men and women responded that violence perpetrated by husbands on their wives is acceptable if the wife refuses sex. This informs understanding about attitudes and norms related to violence in sexual relations in coffee farmers in PNG. Bride price was paid in the case of 77.4% of couples; this is associated with attitudes about the rights that a man has over the body of his wife, including the husband’s right to beat his wife. The study discusses the role of land and that marriage forms the only pathway for a woman to access land and related resources - women are dependent on their husbands for survival.
|
Sociocultural; impacts on livelihoods; extent and nature.
|
Ezirigwe, J. (2018).
|
Nigeria
|
To examine (and challenge) practices that hinder participation of smallholder women farmers in Nigeria.
|
|
Literature review/essay
|
GBV limits women farmers' productivity. There is weak enforcement of laws on DV, and law enforcement personnel promote the notion that DV should be dealt with within the family and not as a crime. Food scarcity and "lateness in preparing food due to time spent on collecting firewood “increase GBV risk. Safety risks while working on farms means women are forced to engage in agricultural tasks in the company of men, presenting a further challenge. Sparse medical services in rural areas means that medically establishing a rape or other crime is difficult; remoteness of the setting means a lack of witnesses.
|
Impacts on livelihoods; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Fischer-Daly, M (2022).
|
USA, Spain and Mexico
|
To analyse the role of dignity in bargaining power in the strawberry sector
|
154 workers, unionists, managers, government officials, scholars and activist in strawberry production.
|
Case study interviews.
|
Prevention of GBV perpetrated at work included as a key demand in collective bargaining of agricultural workers. Association between dignity and GBV. Sidelining of women in industrial action.
|
Interventions; impacts on livelihoods.
|
Handebo, S., Kassie, A., & Nigusie, A. (2021).
|
Ethiopia
|
To assess help-seeking behaviour of women who experienced physical and sexual violence
|
Data was extracted from the 2016 Ethiopian DHS dataset. The final analysis of the research was based on the responses of 1540 reproductive age women in Ethiopia who had experienced physical and sexual violence.
|
The study draws on the DHS data of the 1540 women (described in the Study Population/Sample Size column) to explore their help-seeking behaviours responses.
|
The likelihood of help seeking is higher in women working in agriculture compared to women who do not work. However, women whose husbands work in agriculture were 64% less likely to seek help than those with unemployed husbands. The authors state that women working in agriculture (and other sectors) might have higher help-seeking behaviour since they generate their own income and have more independence to seek help.
|
Sociocultural; aggravating or protective.
|
Hillenbrand, E., Lakzadeh, P., Sokhoin, L., Talukder, Z., Green, T., & McLean, J. (2014).
|
Cambodia
|
To employ Naila Kabeer’s Social Relations Approach (SRA) in implementing a baseline gender analysis of the Fish on Farms (FoF) project in Cambodia, and to assess the impact of the FoF project on women’s empowerment.
|
120 respondents. Two groups of 60 based on the two locations of the treatment arms of the FoF project randomised control trial. Participants included women involved in the project, their husbands and sometimes their grandmothers.
|
The Social Relations Approach (SRA) to conduct baseline gender analysis with approximately 120 participants in the two treatment arms of the FoF project randomised control trial. SRA uses interviews, group interviews and tools that encourage dialogue and involvement of respondents.
|
While there are some persistent aspects of GBV, participants recognized that women and men have equal rights. Unintended change outcomes of the FOF program can include women identifying a need for a reduction in GBV. Paper highlights need to provide spaces for all interview/discussion participants to voice their thoughts (potential to separate men and women for interviews).
|
Sociocultural; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Jalal, C. S., Frongillo, E. A., & Warren, A. M. (2015).
|
Bangladesh
|
To investigate how the Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction-Targeting the Ultra Poor (CFPR-TUP) program, a poverty alleviation program in ultra-poor Bangladesh, impacts two aspects of psychosocial health: distress and subjective well-being
|
Two hundred and nine women from three northern districts in Bangladesh: 110 women from the CFPR-TUP program households and 99 women in the control group (non-program households).
|
A baseline survey was conducted in 2002 with an endline survey in 2006. The survey included questions about the household, well-being, DV, food insecurity, distress, economic constraints, emotional constraints, and social constraints. One control group and one group engaged in program: Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction-Targeting the Ultra Poor (CFPR-TUP)
|
Poverty alleviation programs can reduce domestic violence, a key stressor for wellbeing. Engagement in the CFPR-TUP program led to a reduction in experiences of DV and food insecurity, highlighting options to implement interventions that address multiple aspects of women’s and households’ psychosocial health.
|
Interventions.
|
Jenderedjian, A., & Bellows, A. C. (2021).
|
Armenia & Georgia
|
This study draws on perspectives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Armenia and Georgia to investigate NGOs' resistance to, versus embrace of gender mainstreaming in rural development and agriculture.
|
215 surveys of NGO employees (food and nutrition focused); 53 interviews with NGO employees (24 Armenian; 29 Georgian)
|
Applying Bourdieu’s theory of field-habitus, and intersectionality as critical praxis. Uses sequential mixed methods (Electronic survey and individual interviews)
|
Gender mainstreaming (GM) is important within food security programs but not widely accepted. There is a need to raise awareness of the importance and value of GM before we start discussing "how to do" gender or equality mainstreaming. Feminist NGOs recognise that GBV is considered a necessity rather than an ethical dilemma or unwelcome move. This is in stark contrast to resistance expressed by male leaders of non-feminist NGOs.
|
Interventions.
|
Kohli, et al. (2015).
|
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
|
This study explores risk factors, individual and family consequences and community-driven responses to IPV in post-conflict eastern DRC.
|
Participants included 13 female survivors and 5 male perpetrators of IPV as reported during baseline data collection as part of the "Pigs for Peace" livestock microfinance program
|
Qualitative: in-depth interviews with rural men and women involved in the Pigs for Peace village-based microfinance program.
|
Culturally acceptable, community-based prevention and response programs to combat IPV are recommended. Interventions should be developed with the community in a participatory manner.
|
Aggravating or protective factors; interventions.
|
Kumar, N., Raghunathan, K., Arrieta, A., Jilani, A., & Pandey, S. (2021).
|
India
|
To assess the impact of women’s membership in a self-help group (SHG) on women’s empowerment.
|
Panel data on 1470 rural Indian women, 1344 rural Indian men
|
Baseline survey: household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, participation in SHG platforms and women’s empowerment. Use of Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
|
SHG membership does not appear to significantly impact attitudes towards IPV. However, there is some evidence that IPV can be reduced through cash and in-kind transfers to women. However, such impacts are short-lived and not sustained beyond the life of a project. It is Important for measurement of IPV to use adjusted tools (eg WEAI) for project impact assessment.
|
Interventions; extent and nature.
|
Maduekwe, E., et al. (2020).
|
Malawi
|
To illustrate the extent of women’s human recognition in Malawi and to contribute to the body of knowledge on measuring human development for policy designs.
|
Malawi's DHS data: 2004, 2010, 2015
|
Use of the Alkire-Foster method (for measuring poverty or wellbeing) to estimate human recognition deprivation index (HRDI) among women in Malawi. The DHS includes questions regarding a respondent’s experience or perception of several domains related to human recognition, including those dealing with violence, humiliation, dehumanization, and autonomy.
|
Women working in agricultural settings are valued less by society.
|
Sociocultural.
|
Mahmud, M., & Riley, E. (2021).
|
Uganda
|
To explore the economic and well-being impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on a sample of households in rural Uganda.
|
Initial household survey of 1277 households prior to lockdown (March 2020). Further phone survey after lockdown with 85% sample (May 2020)
|
Face-to-face (F2F) survey and follow up phone survey.
|
Economic security and emotional well-being are key pathways impacting on violence. Women faced worsened conditions in the home and are at an increased risk of violence resulting from extreme shocks and reductions in farm income. Targeted income and food consumption support may help mitigate some of these impacts.
|
Aggravating and protective factors; interventions.
|
Malapit, H., Ragasa, C., Martinez, E. M., Rubin, D., Seymour, G., & Quisumbing, A. (2020).
|
The Philippines
|
To adapt the survey-based project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) to measure women's and men's empowerment in value chains and to investigate correlates of empowerment.
|
1264 households and 2811 individuals were interviewed for the survey. 40 qualitative interviews were undertaken.
|
Pro-WEAI, a survey-based tool to measure women's and men's empowerment and inclusion in agricultural development
projects was adapted to focus on aspects of empowerment relevant to value chains (VC). Survey design was informed by initial qualitative interviews. Qualitative interviews were also conducted after survey to provide insights into some of the key results and patterns emerging from the pro-WEAI scores.
|
Within VC context, respect within the household and attitudes about GBV are the largest sources of disempowerment for both women and men, followed by control over use of income and autonomy in income-related decisions. Gender issues exist across VCs, highlighting the need to address deeply rooted, structural gender and social norms.
|
Sociocultural; extent and nature
|
Meinzen-Dick, R., Quisumbing, A., Doss, C., & Theis, S. (2019).
|
Global
|
To review literature on women’s land rights (WLR) and poverty reduction to identify pathways by which WLR could reduce poverty and increase wellbeing of women and their households in rural areas.
|
52 references used for review
|
A systematic review to assess the available high-quality evidence on the effects of strengthening WLR on development outcomes related to poverty reduction
|
The review includes papers that examine the relationship between WLR and domestic violence, one of the clearest indicators of disempowerment. Three papers in the review show significant links between land ownership, relationship power and GBV. Land ownership is negatively associated with physical and psychological violence.
|
Sociocultural; impacts on livelihoods; protective
|
Narang, B. (2014).
|
India
|
The study aims to explore the effect of water scarcity on the perceived health status and quality of life of people in a rural village in Mewat.
|
Numbers not outlined in paper
|
This study is based on an inductive approach, focus group discussions, participatory exercises, and dialogue with key informants as primary modes of data collection.
|
Collecting water from outside the village took a toll on women and impacted on productive time. Water scarcity led to increased stress, including increases in GBV.
|
Aggravating or protective factors.
|
Nerkar, S. S., Tamhankar, A. J., Johansson, E., & Stålsby Lundborg, C. (2013).
|
India
|
To understand perceptions of the tribal community members regarding public health and socioeconomic implications of watershed management (watershed = in an area or a region which contributes rainfall water to a river or lake.)
|
Six focus groups
|
Qualitative study with six focus group discussions (FGDs), three each separately for men and women. Conducted among tribal community members of the Maharashtra state of India.
|
Watershed management could directly or indirectly result in reduction of the public health related challenges in this setting, such as alcoholism, intimate partner violence, as well as drudgery of women. There are links to climate vulnerability with environmental stressors impacting on GBV.
|
Interventions.
|
Otufale, G. (2013).
|
Nigeria
|
To analyse socio-cultural factors influencing GBV on agricultural livelihood activities of rural households in Ogun State Nigeria.
|
220 rural women surveyed from 3 zones
|
Quantitative study using multistage sampling. Women involved in agricultural livelihood activities.
|
GBV negatively impacts on agricultural livelihood activities. Societal and cultural norms impact on GBV highlighting the need for programs to identify, understand and address sociocultural factors
|
Impacts on livelihoods.
|
Quisumbing, A., Ahmed, A., Hoddinott, J., Pereira, A., & Shalini, R. (2021).
|
Bangladesh
|
To assess the impacts of agriculture, nutrition, and gender interventions on women’s empowerment in Bangladesh.
|
25 households involved in training. Empowerment measured through pro-WEAI tool.
|
A clustered randomized controlled trial with the following arms was conducted July 2016 to December 2017.
T-A: Agricultural Production training
T-N: Nutrition Behaviour Change Communication (BCC)
T-AN: Agricultural Production training and Nutrition BCC
T-ANG: Agricultural Production training, Nutrition BCC, and Gender Sensitization
C: Control
|
Interventions improved women's empowerment but findings on whether GBV is reduced are not straightforward. Paper highlights importance of monitoring unintended harm to women when implementing gender-transformative interventions. The role of engaging men and women jointly in interventions, and how best to do so, is a promising area for future research.
|
Interventions.
|
Ragetlie, R., Hounkpatin, W. A., & Luginaah, I. (2021).
|
Sub Saharan Africa (Benin)
|
To explore the connection between alcohol misuse and food insecurity in the Atacora region of Benin.
|
20 interviews with couples from farming families (40) pus 6 community focus groups
|
Qualitative study (40 participants for dyad interview; 94 participants in focus groups)
|
Highlights the complex interplay between food insecurity and GBV. In lean times, heavy drinking is problematic, sparks arguments leading to increasing GBV. More women using alcohol to cope with stress and hunger; therefore, alcohol misuse is impacting women farmers too. Alcohol misuse needs to be addressed as part of a broader strategy to address GBV in the context of rural livelihoods.
|
Aggravating or protective factors.
|
Ragetlie, R., Sano, Y., Amoussa Hounkpatin, W., & Luginaah, I. (2021).
|
Benin
|
The study aims to investigate the association between household food production and IPV in Atacora, Benin.
|
300 rural women surveyed
|
Quantitative: Using a social ecological model and drawing from family stress theory, data from a cross-sectional survey of 300 women in the study region collected and analysed.
|
IPV is more of a widespread problem among farmers than population-level reporting indicates. Study points to the importance of addressing women’s access to, and ownership over, land as a strategy to address IPV. Involving more women in production-oriented interventions in rural farming communities may reduce women’s risk of IPV by increasing households’ access to food and reducing family stress.
|
Extent and nature; interventions; aggravating or protective factors.
|
Rignall, K. E. (2019).
|
Morocco
|
An essay which explores the analytical consequence of considering structural violence of rural life through a gendered intersectional lens.
|
Ethnographic research
|
Fieldwork/observation
|
This research on structural violence indicates the extent to which women‘s participation in agricultural production and other economic activities is rendered invisible by formal statistical categories. Most women in the valley participate in agricultural production but that participation may be invisible in data collected. Need better data capturing approaches.
|
Extent and nature.
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Sabri, B., Wirtz, A. L., Ssekasanvu, J., Nonyane, B. A. S., Nalugoda, F., Kagaayi, J., Ssekubugu, R., & Wagman, J. A. (2019).
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Uganda
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This study aims to identify unique correlates of IPV, HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STI) in fishing, trading and agrarian communities in Rakai, Uganda
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Survey of 14464 individuals
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Quantitative study - cross sectional data collected from a survey of 14464 men and women from fishing, trading and agrarian communities in Uganda.
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Social norms play an important role in IPV victimization and justification. Justification of IPV appears to increase risk for IPV perpetration among men in the fishing community. Social norms that allow and condone IPV must be considered in developing appropriate strategies. Alcohol use can also place individuals at risk of IPV - programs need to target multiple factors and not address IPV in isolation.
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Sociocultural; aggravating or protective factors.
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Sadati, S. M. H., & Mitchell, C. (2021).
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Ethiopia
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Ethiopia has one of the highest rates of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in the world. Study explores how instructors in agricultural colleges understand GBV and its causes and explores the role of instructors as 'agents of change'.
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Interviews with 20 participants, and other narrative based methods
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Qualitative: Narrative based methods including interviews and an interactive storyline development workshop, as well as cellphilming (cellphone + film) as a participatory visual method.
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Agricultural colleges can play a key role in delivering GBV interventions. They can be places for learning and spaces of transformation.
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Interventions.
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Sadati, S. M. H., & Mitchell, C. (2021).
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Ethiopia
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Ethiopia has one of the highest rates of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in the world. This study explores the design of a game called Mela through 'research-based creation' and the use of arts-based practices.
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N/A
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Explores the research process and steps involved in creating a game to help ag college instructors address issues relating to GBV.
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Mela as a serious game has been designed to address GBV in Ethiopian agriculture colleges. The idea of game development in a LMIC is more male at least in terms of prevailing gender norms and may offer a creative approach to addressing GBV in agricultural settings.
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Interventions.
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Sandberg, J. F., Delaunay, V., Boujija, Y., Douillot, L., Bignami, S., Rytina, S., & Sokhna, C. (2021).
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Senegal
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To test a series of models of social learning related to the acceptability of spousal IPV using survey data from a population in rural Senegal.
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Three linked sources of data. In total, the analytical sample size is 1274 individuals residing in 193 compounds across 10 neighbourhoods.
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Uses linked data from NSNHP survey data, NDHSS surveillance data and a census of household wealth.
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Those whose household wealth was more concentrated in agricultural production were more likely to hold more traditional gender schemas and be supportive of IPV than those whose households were less so. Social norms are important and need to be considered when trying to change attitudes about GBV. Interventions targeting individuals (both men and women) who are likely to perceive GBV as acceptable may have a multiplier effect.
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Aggravating or protective factors; sociocultural; interventions.
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Simmons-Stern, L. (2013).
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Cote d'Ivoire
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Study aims to evaluate the incremental impact on levels of IPV of adding “Gender Dialogue Groups” for women and their partners (aiming to change gender norms) to an economic empowerment program for women in rural Cote d'Ivoire.
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Thirty rural villages. Intervention included 981 rural women in first intervention (513 treatment; 421 control) 934 women (95.2% ) completed baseline and follow up survey/data collection
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A two-armed, non-blinded randomized-controlled trial (RCT) comparing group savings only (control) to “gender dialogue groups” added to group savings (treatment). The gender dialogue group consisted of eight sessions that targeted women and their male partner. Eligible Ivorian women (18 + years, no prior experience with group savings) were invited to participate.
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Findings illustrate the potential benefits of adding gender sensitization components into livelihood programs for women in conflict and non-conflict affected settings. While economic empowerment programs targeting women are advancing women’s status, health, and livelihoods, the addition of an intervention for women and their male partners to promote gender equitable norms yields more reductions in IPV than economic programming alone.
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Interventions.
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Simsek, Z., Kara, B., Ersin, F., Okten, S., & Yildirimkaya, G. (2016).
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Turkey
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Study determines male and female seasonal agricultural workers' perception of violence, prevalence of violence, frequency of victimization, and their related factors
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2300 surveys (male and female), two focus groups
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Mixed methods - quantitative (survey) followed by two focus groups with women impacted by GBV.
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Economic violence is particularly high. This is possibly associated with the fact that working women mostly have no say in how their earnings are used. A significant number of women approve of or tolerate violence, highlighting the importance of education and raising awareness. Education is a protective factor against GBV - key strategy to consider.
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Extent and nature; sociocultural; aggravating or protective factors.
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Vedhanayagi, P. (2013).
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South India
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Study outlines the development and early success of the Thendral movement which encompasses people-centred activities to empower women and nurture their role in agriculture.
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N/A
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Autoethnography detailing the author's experience of developing an agro-feminism movement "Thendral movement' in South India
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Women's movements and solidarity between women may be an important step for starting to address specific problems that women in agriculture face.
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Interventions.
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Waid, J. L., Wendt, A. S., Sinharoy, S. S., Kader, A., & Gabrysch, S. (2022).
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Bangladesh
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The aim is to evaluate the impact of a 3-year homestead food production program on men and women's agency. FAARM program
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pro- WEAI data (women's empowerment in agriculture tool) collected from 885 participants.
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Cluster-randomized controlled trial with intervention (FAARM program) to support gardening and poultry rearing. A three-year intervention Food and Agricultural Approaches to Reducing Malnutrition (FAARM program) with groups of 16 women.
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Programs focusing on developing women's agency may have a positive impact on attitudes towards GBV and may reduce some of the risk factors for GBV (i.e., by increasing equity between spouses and increasing self-efficacy).
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Interventions.
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Wilson, J. B., Rappleyea, D. L., Hodgson, J. L., Hall, T. L., & White, M. B. (2014).
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N/A
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The aim is to review previous research related to IPV screening among Migrant and Seasonal Farm Worker (MSFW) women and recommend useful policies.
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Literature search - five studies
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Literature review
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IPV rates are higher in this population, but women farm workers lack support and resources. There appear to be limited screening tools to detect IPV, so prevalence is typically under reported.
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Extent and nature.
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Yount, K. M., Cheong, Y. F., Maxwell, L., Heckert, J., Martinez, E. M., & Seymour, G. (2019).
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Bangladesh & West Africa
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To obtain baseline data from two studies to assess pro WEAI measurement tool. Studies were i) Targeting and Realigning Agriculture for Improved Nutrition (TRAIN) in Bangladesh and ii) Building Resilience in Burkina Faso (BRB).
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TRAIN survey was administered to 5040 households in which at least one woman 18–35 years was present. BRB survey was administered to a subset of households, including 380 women (190 intervention group; 190 comparison group), as well as their husbands or the male heads of household (a total of 760 respondents). Only the women’s responses were analysed in this study.
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Quantitative: baseline data from two GAAP2 projects analysed to assess measurement properties in pro-WEAI.
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The IPV attitude item " capturing intrinsic agency in the right to bodily integrity” can be used unidimensionally but may not assess change over time. When considering pro-WEAI tool for assessing IPV attitudes, response items could be expanded.
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Extent and nature.
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Zafar, S., Saima Zia, M. S., & Amir-ud-Din, R. (2021).
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Nineteen Developing Countries (South Asia, Sub Saharan Africa and Middle East)
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This study analyses if women’s employment is significantly associated with their experience of IPV. Job status is disaggregated into three different categories: (i) agricultural jobs (AJ), (ii) blue-collar jobs (BJ), and (iii) white-collar jobs (WJ)
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Data used for this study is taken from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series of Demographic and Health Surveys (IPUMS-DHS). The study participants were ever-married women aged 15–49 years. Over two million women in 19 countries from 2010 to 2016 gave complete interviews (N = 2,237, 919).
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The countries and corresponding years in which surveys were conducted include Burkina Faso (2010), Cameroon (2011), Congo, DR (2007, 2013), Cote d’Ivoire (2011), Egypt (2005, 2014), Ethiopia (2016), Ghana (2008), India (2005, 2015), Kenya (2003, 2008, 2014), Malawi (2004, 2010, 2016), Mali (2006, 2012), Mozambique (2011), Nigeria (2008, 2013), Pakistan (2012), Rwanda (2005, 2010, 2014), Tanzania (2010, 2015), Uganda (2006, 2011), Zambia (2007, 2013), and Zimbabwe (2005, 2010, 2015).
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Women’s employment does not protect them against all forms of IPV. The relationship between women’s employment and their experience of IPV is context specific. Educating practitioners and policymakers to understand some of the nuanced IPV risks faced by working women may significantly decrease IPV risk.
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Aggravating or protective factors; interventions.
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