Geological context and sedimentary analysis
The geological context was determined by standard field mapping of exposures and outcrops. The detailed sedimentary column of the sequence in which the track’s surface is preserved has been recorded, including dip direction, and facies description through analysis of the grain characteristics (Fig. 2).
Footprint Analysis
Footprint identification. The identification of the footprints was based on the anatomical characteristics of the human foot: a rounded heel, a plantar arch, relatively short toes and an adducted hallux 4,67.
Footprint recording. Descriptions, measurements, and photos of footprints were made directly in the field (Fig. 2). We carried out a low-altitude UAV flight of the footprint surface on the indurated shore platform and a series of DGPS measurements of the most visible tracks and the limits of footprint surfaces (clusters). UAV images were collected at nadirs along calibrated flight paths parallel to the coast, at an elevation of 12 m using a Mavic Pro Platinum quadcopter (DJI, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, China) equipped with a 12.35 MP camera. DJI GS Pro Flight Planner software TM was used for programming the automatically and autonomously executed flight plan. High-overlap image sets ensure sufficient target points in adjacent images as the standard procedure; we planned the flight paths to provide 80% overlap between successive images and 70% sidelap between adjacent paths. A total of 461 photographs were collected over the study area. We used Agisoft Metashape Professional software (v.1.6.2) to process the images. During the flight survey, 12 ground control points (GCPs) consisting of black-and-white chequered cardboard, essential to produce georeferenced aerial images, were deployed at different locations on the shore platform to provide the widest possible coverage (Fig. 3 a). Their positions were recorded using a Trimble differential GPS in real-time kinematics mode (Fig. 3 a). Digital elevation models (DSM) with a resolution of 1.09 cm per pixel and orthophotographs with a resolution of 5.43 mm per pixel were computed using Agisoft Metashape software and imported to a GIS environment using QGIS software (v.3.28.4) to characterize the spatial distribution and orientation of the footprints. The data collected during this flight were used to characterize the spatial distribution and orientation of the footprints using QGIS software (v.3.28.4). In addition, 28 footprints were scanned by close-up photography and vertical mosaic of high-resolution digital images taken with a Nikon D7500 (20.9 MP, Nikon AF-S DX35mm f/1.8 G) from a height of approximately 1.5 m (Fig 3. b). Photographs were photogrammetrically modelled using Agisoft Metashape software (v.2.0.1) to obtain 3D models of the best-preserved footprints.
Morphometry. The lengths were measured in 3D along the longitudinal axis of the footprints. For a complete footprint, this length corresponds to the distance between the base of the heel and the tip of the second toe. The measurements taken from the 3D models were compared to those obtained directly in the field and those measured on the orthomosaics obtained with the drone (Table S1). No significant difference was observed between the measurement techniques (Kruskal-Wallis: p.value > 0.05; mean difference < 0.1 cm).
Stature estimates. Statures were determined from footprint lengths using the mean of estimates obtained from two published regressions. The first regression is based on a study of usually unshod individuals' experimental footprints left in a sandy-silty substrate68.The second regression is based on a study of experimental footprints made in dune sand by usually shod individuals68. The differences in stature between these two regressions for the Larache footprints sample are minor (mean: 1.1 cm) (Table S1).
Age class estimates. An age class was estimated by placing the length of the footprints on a curve representing the variation of foot length with age. This curve was determined from various published anthropometric data collected on different modern populations 69,70,71,72, 73,74.
Minimum number of individual estimates (MNI). Although the footprint assemblage is partly composed of isolated footprints, it was possible to determine a Minimum Number of Individuals. For this, we used the intra-individual variation of footprints. Indeed, footprints of a single individual in a soft substrate have different sizes and shapes. However, this intra-individual morphological variation is limited; it is possible to use this limit for a sample of isolated footprints to determine a minimum number of individuals. Several studies on experimental or Holocene footprints have shown that this intra-individual variation can be important; the deviation from the individual mean can exceed 10% 4,32,68,75. Therefore, we used the same assumption as Ashton et al. 13 in their study of Happisburgh footprints by considering that a single individual could have made footprints falling within ±10% of each other.
Luminescence dating
Sampling method. A rock sample was extracted from a zone of sedimentary continuity on the surface of the footprints for OSL dating. This sampling was carried out with all possible precautions and following the sampling protocols for OSL dating. A rectangular sample measuring approximately 15 cm X 15 cm was extracted by hand using a hammer and chisel and packed directly into an opaque PVC box.
Sample preparation procedure. The outer layer of the sample was removed to a depth of 25 mm on each side to ensure that the material exposed to sunlight was effectively eliminated. Subsequently, the core of the sample was carefully crushed and wet sieved to obtain grain fractions of 90–180 μm and 180–250 μm. The 180-250 μm fraction was chemically treated to isolate the quartz grains. Initially, it was exposed to a 10% HCl solution until the carbonates were completely dissolved. Following this step, H2O2 was employed to remove any organic matter present. Two density separation processes were then carried out using sodium polytungstate to separate quartz from feldspar and other heavier minerals effectively. Finally, a 40% HF solution was employed to remove any remaining feldspar residuals and for etching the outer layer of quartz, which might have been influenced by alpha radiation. Lastly, the resulting quartz grains were carefully dried and sieved once more, with the specific fractions falling within the 180-250 μm range selected for subsequent measurements.
SAR procedure. Samples were measured using the SAR (Single Aliquot Regenerative dose) procedure 75. A portion of 180–250 μm quartz grains from the sample was divided into aliquots that were measured individually. Table 2 shows the SAR protocol used. The OSL signal was measured for 40 s at 0.1 s per data point, giving 400 data points (Fig. S2). OSL signal was measured using a blue LED light source. OSL signal was collected with a reading temperature of 125 ºC. The signal was dominated by the fast component, considering the first 5 data points (0.5 s) for measurement. The background was calculated considering the end part of the spectrum (50 data points) and subtracted from the measured signal. No feldspar contamination was detected using IR stimulation. Figs. S3 and S4 have been chosen as representative of the OSL measurement process. They show the OSL decay and dose-response curves obtained from the sample.
Table 2. SAR Protocol
Step
|
Treatment
|
Measurement
|
1
|
Give regenerative dose
|
-
|
2
|
Preheat (220°C, 10 s)
|
-
|
3
|
OSL (Blue at 125°C, 40 s)
|
Lx
|
4
|
Give test dose
|
-
|
5
|
Cutheat (180°C, 10 s)
|
-
|
6
|
OSL (Blue at 125°C, 40 s)
|
Tx
|
7
|
Cleanout (280°C, 100 s)
|
-
|
8
|
Return to step 1
|
-
|
The resulting populations are normally distributed with overdispersion values <20% (Fig. S5). Central Age Model (CAM) 76 has been applied to calculate the equivalent dose (i.e., the accumulated dose due to the ionising radiation received by the quartz grains over the period they have been buried) of each sample.
Pre-heat dose recovery test. A pre-heat temperature of 220ºC was considered for the OSL measurements. A pre-heat dose recovery test was conducted for the sample to determine this temperature. Fifteen aliquots were bleached using a daylight simulator for 5 hours and subsequently irradiated with 51.6 Gy, previously determined by a dose range test. Five sets of 3 aliquots each were preheated at 5 different temperatures (180ºC, 200ºC, 220ºC, 240ºC and 260ºC). Then, the given/recovered dose ratio was determined for each preheat temperature. The best averaged given/recovered dose ratio was obtained for 220ºC.
OSL measurement and analysis. OSL measurements were conducted using the TL/OSL reader Risø TL-DA 20. This instrument is equipped with a calibrated 90Sr/90Y beta source, which delivers an approximate dose rate of 0.09 Gy/s at the location of the sample disc.
The OSL signal was collected for each measurement from small quartz multi-grain aliquots (30-60 grains) ranging from 1 to 2 mm in diameter. A total of 48 aliquots were measured to ensure accurate and reliable results (Fig. S5).
Dose rate calculations. The dose rate for the sample was calculated from the mean activity concentrations of 40K, 232Th and 238U, which were measured by high-resolution gamma spectrometry. Conversion factors were used according to Guérin et al. 77. The water content considered is indicated in the results (Table 1). It was calculated as the average value between the sample's water content measured at the laboratory and a reference value for the saturation of the sand layers (25%), as the sample was submerged by the effect of the tides for part of the year. The dose attenuation contribution was determined considering this value. The contribution of cosmic radiation to the total dose rate has been calculated as a function of latitude, longitude, altitude, burial depth and mean density of the coating, based on data from Prescott and Hutton, 199478. Alpha grain-size attenuation was determined according to Brennan et al., 79. According to Guérin et al.77, beta grain-size attenuation was determined. The minimum and maximum etch depths were 8 and 10 microns, respectively. Beta etch depth attenuation factor was used according to Bell 80.
Dating results. The age of the sample was determined by applying the following expression:
where the equivalent dose is expressed in Gray (Gy) and the dose rate in Gray per kilo-year (Gy/ka). The age is therefore expressed in kiloyears (ka) (Table 1). Luminescence dating basics can be found in Aitken 81.
Dating measurement uncertainty. To estimate the measurement uncertainty, the contributions of the standards, the measurement method, the environmental conditions and those derived from the testing process were considered. The values obtained correspond to the time at which the measurements were made. The expanded measurement uncertainty was expressed with a coverage factor k=2, which, in a normal distribution, corresponds to a coverage probability of approximately 95%. The measurement uncertainty was determined according to JCGM 100:2008 82 .