WITHDRAWN: An Experimental Study on Quantitative Evaluation of Cognitive Features in Indian College Students with Yoga and Rajyoga Meditation as Intervention

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WITHDRAWN: An Experimental Study on Quantitative Evaluation of Cognitive Features in Indian College Students with Yoga and Rajyoga Meditation as Intervention

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3541012/v1

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Background: The current study reported the stigma of mental health issues among young college students, and analysed the effectiveness of Indian therapeutic interventions, Yoga and Rajyoga meditation, in improving the brain dynamics of Yoga college students. This study is the first of its kind that can provide the wavelet decomposition-based EEG features and the cognitive PEBL task features as neurophysiological markers.

Methods: Electroencephalographic signals and scores from PEBL battery tasks were recorded during performing PEBL tasks before and after eight weeks of intervention.

Results: The post-intervention meditators group demonstrated a substantial improvement in the average scores and memory span in the cognition battery tasks. Additionally, theta, alpha, and beta band powers were higher for post-meditators in frontal, temporal, and parietal regions during CORSI and SIMON tasks.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that the combination of Yoga and Rajyoga meditation practice leads to increase in spatial attention, spatial memory, and working memory.

Integrative & Complementary Medicine

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognition

EEG

PEBL

Rajyoga Meditation

Yoga interventions

In the current scenario, the most vulnerable population to stress and anxiety is college students. Since the youth are considered to be the future of society, it is critical to consider their issues regarding mental health. The early signs of mental health disorders may be caused by academic pressures combined with adjustment issues. But, the count of the young population seeking and adhering to the treatment is very meagre. Thus, it is essential to develop outreach initiatives and put into practise cost-free techniques to assure their psychological wellbeing. Early mental illness detection and treatment in college students may lower attrition and enhance academic and psychosocial performance.

As per the survey data provided by the Healthy Minds Study, about 60 percent of the total (around 3.5 lakh) college students from 373 different colleges faced mental health issues during 2020–2021 (Al, 2022). Demand for counselling centres has skyrocketed during the previous ten years (Health, 2022). Data from Penn State University's Centre for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH), a network of over 700 college and university counselling services, shows that /this tendency has had negative effects on counselling centres, including models switching from long-term therapy to crisis assistance and an increase in clinician caseloads, both of which are linked to less treatment and less effective care.

1.1 Mental health issues among college students

The highest risk period for developing any mental disorder is during college. Many epidemiological studies have pointed toward the factors behind the stressful life of college students. The role of academic functioning (Bruffaerts et al., 2018), a transition towards adulthood (Sussman & Arnett, 2014), pressures about future plans, and distance from family members (Beiter et al., 2015), may lead to substance use (Pedrelli et al., 2015) or even suicidal thoughts and behavior among students (Mortier et al., 2018). A survey performed in the U.S. to evaluate the prevalence of psychological disorders among college-going and non-college students revealed that nearly 50% of them had a mental illness in the previous year (Blanco et al., 2008). College students were far more likely than non-college students to develop alcohol use problems. First-year college students were studied to determine the prevalence and sociodemographic correlations of mental illnesses through surveys conducted in nineteen colleges across eight countries (Auerbach et al., 2018). Out of the total respondents, 31% and 35% of full-time students, respectively, tested positively for at least one 12-month disorder and one of the prevalent lifetime disorders. By contrasting college students and nonstudents in the same age group, the relationships between mental illnesses and college enrolment and attrition were investigated using data from the World Mental Health Surveys conducted by WHO. (Auerbach et al., 2017). Out of the total college students examined, 20.3% of them had major depressive disorders within the previous 12 months. The most serious disorders among women were substance abuse and major depression. Those who received treatment for their mental illness were only 16.4%.

The University of Arizona survey included data from masters and doctoral students (Barreira et al., 2018). Most Ph.D. students indicated "greater than average" or "tremendous" stress. Most of the masters’ students also rated stress as “more than average” and “tremendous”. Another comprehensive survey among masters and doctoral students showed that comparing graduate students to the general population, depression, and anxiety are more than six times more common in students (Evans et al., 2018). 41 % of the respondents reported experiencing moderate to severe anxiety and 39% of them had depressive symptoms that ranged from moderate to severe.

Since the count of students that require treatment for these illnesses is much larger that the capacity of the majority of counselling clinics, there is a considerable unmet need for the prevention of psychological health issues among college students. Students who are recommended by college counselling facilities for medication screening and therapy frequently have depression, anxiety, or ADHD. A study outlining the drug prescriptions given by college counselling centres to vulnerable college students revealed that the most often prescribed drug was an antidepressant. Many students admitted to having had suicidal thoughts in the past, and 12% of them had actually attempted suicide at least once(Kirsch et al., 2015). The annual survey (2019-2020) among counselling centres performed by the association for University and Colleges counselling centre directors highlighted the impact of the Coronavirus pandemic on counselling centre services (Gorman et al., 2020). According to the directors, the topmost concern about mental health among the clients is anxiety followed by depression, stress, and other parameters.

1.2 Yoga and meditation interventions to calm stress and anxieties among college students

The young population must be treated with evidence-based therapies following a comprehensive examination (Pedrelli et al., 2015). A resilience framework may help college students with mental health difficulties, manage the challenges of college learning more skilfully, and increase retention (Hartley, 2013). For students experiencing the most psychological distress, intrapersonal resilience is more significant. The resilience factors and mental health also bear a significant statistical association.

Numerous pieces of evidence support the role of meditation-based therapies in the treatment of a variety of issues in young populations. The efficacy of a brief mindfulness meditation was examined in a non-clinical student population (Canby et al., 2015). The parameters assessed were psychological distress, self-control, emotional intelligence, and subjective vitality. The six-week mindfulness meditation led to the reduction of psychological distress while enhancing self-control, subjective vitality, and awareness among the students. Somatic practices, that resemble meditation and yoga practices, are also helpful in increasing mindfulness and enhancing mood and sleep quality (Caldwell et al., 2010). Students who participated in these practices showed increases in total mindfulness over the course of a fifteen-week semester, which also had significant positive effects on both their physical and mental health. Increases in mindfulness were associated with better sleep, mood, stress perception, and self-regulatory self-efficacy. In addition, four factors—fatigue, negative arousal, relaxation, and perceived stress—were found to result in rise in mindfulness and sleep quality. One of the yoga-based meditation approaches called the Mastering Emotions Technique (MEMT) aims to help practitioners manage their emotions. The students of a residential college were exposed to MEMT for 45 minutes every day for fifteen days (Patel et al., 2018). The findings showed that the technique reduced negative emotions while enhancing emotion control, mindfulness, and self-compassion. Even a brief mindfulness training can help college students control the stress arising out of various challenges in their academic life. The mindfulness practice for four weeks reduced the stress and anxiety levels of college students (Shearer et al., 2016). The ECG data collected during a cognitive task showed higher HRV among the students in the mindfulness intervention group. Additionally, the potential benefits of meditation have been examined. It has favourable effects on increasing cognition, attention, and memory. One semester of the mindfulness training program enhanced the learning performance of university students in Taiwan (Ching et al., 2015). The cognitive performance of the students was also improved in terms of attention and memory. Success and well-being in academic situations depend greatly on effective learning and sustained attention and memory. workable strategy to raise university students' cognition and learning outcomes may be to include a meditation course in the curriculum. Following 8 weeks of daily, guided mindfulness meditation for five to twelve minutes, stress and anxiety decreased, and awareness increased among college students preparing for the healthcare field (Burgstahler & Stenson, 2020). The effects were greatest after longer sessions of meditation. Even a single session of mindfulness meditation raised mindfulness and decreased anxiety among first-year college students (Greif & Kaufman, 2021). The results showed a connection between baseline attention performance and changes in body mindfulness. The introduction of a ten-minute mindful awareness practice in college classrooms was linked to the development of mindfulness qualities as well as decreased negative thinking and anxiety levels (Yamada & Victor, 2012).

The meditation management of stress (MMS) program includes a certain style of sitting meditation as well as supplementary exercises for integrating and maintaining meditation integrating contemplative mindsets with daily activities. MMS training was imparted as eight 90-minute weekly meetings to college undergraduate students (Oman et al., 2008). The program included sitting meditation techniques, some informal exercises, and the development of mental and emotional resources. As a result, the perceived stress was drastically reduced among the students even after two months of follow-up. A quasi-experimental study to compare the coping mechanisms used by students who meditated and those who did not, as well as to analyze the impact of meditation on students' physical and mental health was done among first-year students in a college in Taiwan (Yang et al., 2009). The intervention included two hours of meditation practice for eighteen weeks. The results revealed that the experimental treatment's impact was considerable. The experimental group experienced fewer physical and psychological problems than the control group did. Transcendental meditation practice has also been shown to have positive impacts on both psychological and physical health, which may be helpful for students in managing the challenging aspects of college life. Undergraduate students in the U.S. were used to examine the benefits of meditation, particularly Transcendental Meditation, on college students' experiences of stress, anxiety, sadness, and perfectionistic thinking (Burns et al., 2011). Prior to the start of the trial, self-report measurements of the variables were conducted. Over the course of two semesters, students received TM training and diligently practiced the method. The two semesters' ends saw the administration of post-TM tests. On all indicators, the groups displayed a considerable drop. College students of the College of Pharmacy took part in a six-week trial program that included a vinyasa flow yoga session of 60 minutes each week, followed by faculty-led guided meditation (Lemay et al., 2019). The students' total mindfulness scores greatly improved, and their levels of stress and anxiety significantly decreased. The post-intervention results showed that no participants received a stress or anxiety score in the "high" range, and the stress scale scores significantly changed from pre- to post-intervention.

1.3 Rajyoga meditation

The Rajyoga meditation is a behavioural intervention that includes both contemplation and concentration. It is taught by Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University. Yet this technique is different from other meditation interventions, in the way that it is practiced with open eyes, without any mantras and rituals, and it can be practiced by anyone, anywhere, at any time. It focuses on self-empowerment through self-consciousness. It harmonizes mental and physical energies through spiritual connection. The short-term and long-term Rajyoga meditators avail various psychological, physiological, and neural benefits as described in many studies. Research studies have shown that Rajyoga meditation improves cognitive functions (Nishi Misra, 2013), reduces cardiovascular risk factors (Ghar et al., 2016), (Eshaan Mishra, Dr. Archana Mishra, Dr. Chandrakanta Mishra & Dash, 2018), calms stress and anxieties (C. H. Kiran et al., 2014), (U. Kiran et al., 2017), and improves physiological and psychological parameters (Sukhsohale et al., 2012). It has also been proved that Rajyoga meditators were more resilient towards the psychological impacts of COVID-19 (Madhu, Govindaraj, et al., 2022; Madhu, Kumar, et al., 2022).

The present study aims at establishing objective measures of yoga and meditation by using EEG signals and scores of cognition tasks. The features among college students were recorded while performing tasks from the PEBL battery. The intervention group was made to exercise yoga and Brahma Kumaris Rajyoga meditation for eight weeks while the control group was not provided any intervention. The recorded features were examined using the following quantitative methods: 1. pre-and post-spectral analysis of EEG signal while performing CORSI and SIMON tasks using wavelet transform 2. Statistical analysis of mean scores obtained from four tasks (CORSI, SIMON, IOWA, and DSPAN) of PEBL battery. 3. Comparative analysis of the features of pre-meditation baseline intervention, post-meditation intervention, and the control group pre and post (without meditation intervention) to differentiate between the control and meditation conditions, and between pre and post states of intervention group.

2.1 Subjects

The intervention group consisted of 45 students (20 students freshly admitted in B.Ed. (Yoga Education and 25 students freshly admitted in PG Diploma in Yoga Therapy (PGDYT)) from Government College of Yoga Education and Health (GCYEH), Chandigarh. These students did not have any prior experience with Yoga and Rajyoga meditation. The control group consisted of 24 healthy students from Dev Samaj College of Education, Chandigarh. The inclusion criteria were the students aged between 18 and 40 years, having no mental illness history, and willing to participate in the study. The excluded participants were the students with prior experience of yoga and/or Rajyoga meditation, patients with known psychiatric illness as assessed by Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) screening, and students suffering from current/chronic medical illnesses or having a history of respiratory illness. The study was approved by Panjab University Institutional Ethical Committee. To take part in the study, every participant gave written consent.

2.2 Procedure

The study design started with the screening of the students of the intervention group. The students of GCYEH admitted in 1^st year B.Ed. and 1^st-year PGDYT underwent an initial assessment through Google form. The selected and interested students underwent baseline assessments. The pre-assessments consisted of an online assessment form, four tasks (CORSI, SIMON, DSPAN, and IOWA) selected from the PEBL cognition test battery, and EEG assessments. They were then given eight weeks of intervention (Yoga, Asana, and Rajyoga meditation) as a part of their curriculum, followed by post-assessments. Whereas the students of the control group were only assessed with the same pre- and post-assessments but were not provided any intervention. The online assessment form consisted of the following measures: Demographic form used to collect information about age, sex, socio-economic class, hometown, family size, height, weight, qualification/degree enrolled, and yoga and meditation experience, and Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) to evaluate the presence of psychiatric disorders.

2.3 Intervention

The yoga module adapted consisted of Asana, Pranayama, and Rajyoga meditation for a period of four months. The Asanas and Pranayama component were taught as per the curriculum of GCYEH by their own faculty members. The Rajyoga meditation module was administered by trained Rajyoga experts. The complete training included 120 minutes a day session, 6 days a week for 8 weeks. The total duration was split into three parts, 40 minutes each for three components. The Rajyoga meditation sessions included three components: 1) knowledge and discussions about self-awareness, supreme awareness, mind-body interaction, connection with self and supreme, tapping powers, and some additional topics; 2) practical meditation, and 3) methods to apply meditation in daily life, doubt clearing and problem-solving techniques.

2.4 Cognition tests

2.4.1 Psychological assessment

The psychological assessment of the students was done with the help of psychological test batteries called Psychological Experimental Building Language (PEBL). Four psychological tests related to attention were administered to the students.

Corsi task

A screen with nine squares was shown to participants and each square lit up in turn. The order in which the squares were given has to be remembered by the participants. The participant then clicked on the squares in the order they lit up once the sequence was finished. In the first trial, a series of two squares were initially used; subsequent sequences included more squares. The participant's memory span was evaluated by counting the number of squares in a sequence that they correctly completed. Each assignment took about five minutes.

Digit span task

Participants were asked to immediately repeat back a series of numbers that were presented to them. A lengthier series of numbers is then offered to the participant if they were able to effectively repeat the series of numbers back. Longer series of numbers were given to the participants until they could no longer correctly repeat them back. The longest list a person could recollect was their digit span in length. It took almost five minutes to complete the Forward Digit Span.

Iowa task

These tasks simulate decision-making in a lab setting. Participants start with $2,000 and must choose cards from among four decks to maximize their profit. The cards may result in a net gain or a net loss. This task is also believed to measure an individual’s risk-taking capacity. Several research teams are now employing the Iowa gambling task to examine which brain areas in healthy volunteers and clinical groups are activated by the task.

Simon task

The Simon task is the experimental task designed to examine the potential effects of different sensory features on the processing of information or decision-making. The stimulus (red or blue coloured ball) flashed on the screen for a short duration changing its position with respect to the screen and the goal was to repetitively respond to the colour of the ball (with right or left arrow keys), ignoring the position of the stimulus (left side or right side of the screen). The task lasted for about 7 to 8 minutes.

2.4.2 Physiological assessment

One of the most widespread physiological methods of cognitive assessments is Electroencephalography (EEG). The EEG signals were recorded with Neuphony device by Pankhtech. The headband device, as shown in Fig. 1 is a wireless acquisition device with eight sensors positioned at the anterior frontal (Fp1, Fp2), lateral frontal (F3, F4), media frontal (Fz), temporal (T3, T4), and parietal (Pz), following 10/20 electrode system with a resolution of 24 bits per channel. All the sensors are dry sensors having polycarbonate conductive passive electrodes with Ag/AgCl coating. EEG signals with a sampling frequency of 250 Hz were recorded with a time constant of 4 ms and a cutoff frequency of 125 Hz. The impedance of each electrode was set up as approximately below 10 KHz. The device connects with the laptop as a USB device for recording and storage of EEG signals.

The EEG data was collected both prior to and after the eight-week intervention/control period. The 22 minutes protocol followed during the EEG recording of each participant is shown in Fig. 2. EEG was recorded while performing Corsi and Simon tasks on PEBL. A rest time of two minutes was given with both eyes open and close before and after each task.

3.1 EEG spectral analysis

Discrete wavelet decomposition has been frequently employed for feature extraction in EEG because it is rhythmic and non-stationary. An observation window of 1s is used to select segments of the full sequence. Using Daubechies 8 levels decomposition, a discrete wavelet decomposition is carried out on each segment. EEG band is defined for five levels, i.e., delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. Kaiser window is used and the band features are averaged to get absolute values. By taking away the smallest value from each characteristic and dividing by the highest value, the absolute value is normalised. This process is done for all the channels in each segment of the EEG data.

3.2 Data acquisition using PEBL

PEBL version 0.13 was used to perform the computerized cognitive test. The test batteries selected had paradigms involving memory, decision-making, and executive control.

Corsi blocks: This task evaluated the spatial working memory of the participants. The output consisted of two variables – total score (calculated as the product of the longest list recalled correctly and the total number of correct patterns), and memory span (calculated by adding the minimum list length to the total number correct, and dividing by the number of lists at each length).

Digit span: This task uses strings of digits or letters to assess the verbal short-term and working memory of the participants. The output consisted of two variables – total correct words and memory span.

Iowa task: A psychological test known as the Iowa gambling task is meant to simulate decision-making in daily life. The output is presented in the form of an average score.

Simon task: This task is an interference task related to executive function. The output is presented as the total number of correct responses.

3.3 Statistical analysis

SPSS software for Windows was used to conduct statistical analyses Since the data is not normally distributed, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was utilised to compare the EEG features for three bands across eight electrodes, and the PEBL features out of four tasks, among the meditators and control groups. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test serves as the parametric paired t-test's nonparametric counterpart. P 0.05 was chosen as the minimal criterion of significance. The pre-meditation baseline intervention, post-meditation intervention, and the control group pre and post (without meditation intervention) were compared groups for significant differences.

4.1 EEG band features

The wavelet features were extracted for meditation (before and after meditation) and control groups (without meditation) from three bands: alpha, beta, and theta for eight electrodes, FP1, FP2, F3, F4, T3, T4, FZ and PZ.

Fig. 3 and fig. 4 show the distribution of features of alpha, beta, and theta of eight channels (FP1, FP2, F3, F4, T3, T4, FZ, and PZ) plotted with meditation and control groups while performing CORSI and SIMON tasks. As shown in the figures, for both the tasks, the alpha, beta and theta values were higher in post meditators for all the channels as compared to the pre-meditators. When compared to the control group, during CORSI task, the feature values were highest in post meditators group, except for lateral frontal (F3) in alpha and beta bands, and temporal (T3 and T4) in theta band. Similarly, during SIMON task, the wavelet feature values were highest in post meditators group, except for anterior frontal (Fp1, Fp2) in alpha band and lateral frontal (F3) in theta band.

4.2 PEBL Scores

Mean values for the scores of the four tasks performed by the participants have been presented in fig. 5. The post-intervention meditators group showed a significant enhancement in the average scores of all four tasks and the memory span in CORSI and DSPAN tasks as compared to the pre-intervention meditators group. While the scores of the control group decreased after four weeks of baseline measures.

This study shows the improvement in cognitive features in yoga college students after practicing yoga and meditation. This is the first study that has incorporated the results from cognition batteries along with EEG wavelet features to establish the relationship between meditation and cognitive attributes.

The Yoga practices, combined with Rajyoga meditation resulted in improvement of spatial and working memory, as evident from CORSI and DSPAN scores, along with enhanced executive functioning and decision making, as seen from SIMON and IOWA scores. Previous studies have also backed an improvement in brain dynamics as a result of yoga practices. Breathing awareness practices also result in improvement in working and spatial memory (Gupta et al., 2019). The participants practiced the breathing exercises for fifteen minutes, leading to an improvement in the backward CORSI span and CORSI total score. A ten days intervention of Yoga resulted in an increase in performance scores in verbal and spatial memory among school children aged between 11 to 16 years (N.K. & S., 2004). The results were compared with the control group, in which the children of the same age group were given training in fine arts activities. While the scores of the control group did not exhibit any change, the scores of the intervention group exhibited an enhancement of forty-three percent in spatial memory scores. The effects of a high-frequency yoga breathing practice on attention among pre-teen children were assessed using a letter cancellation task (Telles et al., 2019). The total scores of attention task were increased after eighteen minutes of breathing practice. The anxiety levels also dipped among the children following the breath awareness practice. Continuous practice of Yoga for twelve weeks leads to significant improvement in short-term memory, attention, and alertness (Mondal & Deepeswar Singh, 2021). The fundamental neurocognitive processes that are most impacted by aging include attention, alertness, and memory. The effect of practicing yogic training for twelve weeks was explored in the participants of the age group between 35 to 55 years. The yoga training group practiced yoga every morning in the forms of kriya, Surya namaskar, asana, pranayama, and dhyana. When compared to baseline data, the results of combined yoga sessions demonstrated a substantial improvement in short-term memory.

In our study, wavelet transform-based features were also evaluated. Since EEG signals are non-stationary in behaviour, wavelet transforms are widely used for EEG signal analysis. Wavelet transform makes use of windows with varying sizes and a wavelet function. Comparison between meditators and control group wavelet characteristics of various bands of EEG spectra showed significant differences in the features’ values. Wavelet-based features from EEG have earlier been used in a comparative study of meditation experts and non-meditators. For experienced Buddhist meditators, theta, alpha, and beta were all relatively greater in the central and frontal regions (Gaurav et al., 2019). The topographical mappings were shown to establish the difference in cortical activity of experienced, medium, and non-practitioners.

Previous research using spectral EEG analysis has found that alpha and theta band powers tend to increase during meditation, especially in the frontal lobe (Takahashi et al., 2005). Brahma Kumaris Rajyoga meditation has previously shown increased activity in the alpha region in experienced meditators (Sharma et al., 2020). Changes were seen in theta and alpha powers in the frontal area of EEG during zen meditation in undergraduate students. High alpha power is a marker for a less active brain [29], which may be attributed to a more calm and positive brain state to facilitate meditation practice. Lower frequency EEH bands (alpha and theta) revealed high band power in Rajyoga meditators as compared to controls (Sharma & Chandra, 2018). Additionally, frontal and parietal channels were shown to have considerable cortical asymmetry as determined by EEG power. The higher alpha band (8-10 Hz) is assumed to represent task-specific activities, such as perceptual and cognitive functions, whereas the lower alpha band (10-12 Hz) is associated with alertness and attention. Even a brief meditation workshop organized for three days for novice meditators resulted in a major increase in theta, alpha, and beta powers (Stapleton et al., 2020). Measures from the baseline (alpha, delta, and theta oscillations) were compared to the end-point. The effectiveness of functional brain integration during meditation was assessed by utilising Gamma synchronization at high frequency. The pace of shift from pre-intervention to post-intervention states of the EEG spectrum was considerable, indicating that the meditation intervention had major changing impacts on EEG spectra, supporting the notion of consciousness.

Alpha power rise shows internalized focus, whilst theta power increase reflects the central aspect of the meditative experience. The novice meditator group showed higher theta amplitudes at all regions after OM mantra meditation just after 30 minutes of Om chanting (Harne & Hiwale, 2018). All cortical areas' increased theta power indicates broad decreases in cortical arousal. With the exception of the frontal area in the theta band, the spectral analysis showed rise in beta and theta EEG power of meditators compared to the control condition (Oken et al., 2014). This rise was more concentrated in the right temporal and occipital regions and smaller in the alpha band. The EEG synchrony was also enhanced in the meditators group. Alpha, beta, and theta powers were also increased by practicing Yoga for one and a half hours per day for five months by a group of engineering students (Nagendra et al., 2015). Increased alpha and beta power can be interpreted as improved cognitive abilities like memory and focus, while increased theta denotes synchronization of brain activity. An increase in band power denotes increased task engagement, increased attentiveness, and improvement in a variety of cognitive functions.

The current study aimed to analyze how the combination of yoga practices and Rajyoga meditation affected the neurophysiological markers among college students. The wavelet decomposition-based EEG features and the cognitive PEBL task features from the intervention group (after eight weeks of Yoga and meditation) were compared with those of the control group (without practicing yoga and meditation) and with the baseline measures. The improvement of states of consciousness from pre-meditation to post-meditation was considerable, indicating that eight weeks of consistent yoga and Rajyoga meditation practice by young, healthy engineering students improves a variety of cognitive abilities. Thus, the quantitative findings may be used as neurofeedback for evaluating the effectiveness of complementary therapies in improving cognitive parameters such as attention and memory functions in the young generation.

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Ethics approval

The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of Panjab University, Chandigarh.

Consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Data and/or Code availability

Upon request, the corresponding author will make the data supporting the results of this study accessible.

Authors’ contribution statements

Shobhika Madhu: Design of study, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript drafting and editing. Prashant Kumar: supervision, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript reviewing and editing. Sushil Chandra: supervision, analysis and interpretation of data, manuscript reviewing. The final manuscript has been read and accepted by all the authors

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WITHDRAWN: An Experimental Study on Quantitative Evaluation of Cognitive Features in Indian College Students with Yoga and Rajyoga Meditation as Intervention

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Editorial Note

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

1.1 Mental health issues among college students

1.2 Yoga and meditation interventions to calm stress and anxieties among college students

1.3 Rajyoga meditation

2. Methods

2.1 Subjects

2.2 Procedure

2.3 Intervention

2.4 Cognition tests

2.4.1 Psychological assessment

Corsi task

Digit span task

Iowa task

Simon task

2.4.2 Physiological assessment

3. Data analysis

3.1 EEG spectral analysis

3.2 Data acquisition using PEBL

3.3 Statistical analysis

4. Results

4.1 EEG band features

4.2 PEBL Scores

5. Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

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