Through an examination of intra-farm level land use decisions, our research provides new insights into the factors influencing the adoption of SPS and sheds light on the challenges and opportunities for scaling these practices. This paper’s findings hold policy implications for the scaling of low-emissions livestock production systems in the Colombian Amazon and elsewhere. Our results highlight the importance of: (1) promoting paddock division and implement diverse management strategies to facilitate transition towards SPS adoption; (2) reaching out to farmers who have not yet participated in SPS projects and enabling invests in low-emissions livestock production; (3) targeting female heads of household in scaling efforts, (4) recognizing and communicating the broader benefits of SPS beyond production and financial benefits.
However, it appears that the income generated from the sales of milk and beef is higher in non-adopter levels where improved pasture is present, this results were in line with those of 26. This could be due to various environmental factors and the possibility that adopters have not fully implemented the SPS on their farms. Hence, farms that adopt SPS may not immediately perceive or realize the full spectrum of potential economic benefits associated with this technology, as these benefits tend to become more evident in the medium and long term. This can be further understood and confirmed on ‘Supplementary Table 1’. Although the differences in income are not significant, it indicates that the implementation of SPS systems is a gradual process and that once fully implemented, income levels are expected to increase significantly. Therefore, the successful implementation of SPS systems is expected to greatly enhance the quality and quantity of milk and beef production.
Results from this study are consistent with previous studies reporting that SPS adoption is a gradual process that requires time, information, and inputs for testing and implementation 14,35 and highlight the need for targeted interventions and support to facilitate the transition to sustainable practices. This research diverges from conventional farm-level analysis and adopt a focused approach that centers on paddocks as the primary unit of analysis to examine the determinants of adoption of Silvopastoral Systems (SPS). This study also delves into the farm-level benefits associated with SPS adoption, including improved productivity, increased income, and the potential for land conservation. Results from this study further indicate that some of the surveyed farmers have taken steps towards adopting sustainable practices but have not fully transitioned to adoption of SPS. This is probably because of socio-economic factors that act as barriers to the full adoption of SPS 20. Which in turn suggests that there is potential to further enhance SPS adoption among these farmers. However, the percentage adoption in this area is low which can be explained by the ageing farming population of this area dominated by male farmers. Specifically, results show that only a small proportion (5%) of paddocks exhibit a high or medium level of SPS adoption across all their paddocks. Similarly, results reveal that a significant majority of paddocks (76%) of the surveyed farmers are not classified as SPS adopters. Results also reveal that the highest proportion of paddocks falls into the category non-adopter with improved pasture category (42%). This suggests that there may be economic and environmental incentives for adopting rotational grazing, which could explain why the non-adopter group with improved pasture category had the largest proportion 36. However, there may be other factors beyond economic incentives that prevent some farmers from adopting SPS practices. These could include lack of information or knowledge about the benefits of SPS 37, cultural resistance to change 27, or difficulty in implementing the practice due to technical or logistical challenges 36.
This results further emphasize the importance of considering farm and farmer level characteristics and engaging farmers in the adoption process. The successful scaling of low-emissions livestock production systems relies on tailoring interventions to the specific needs and capacities of different farms and farmers38. This is consistent with several studies highlighting the importance of customization in promoting sustainable practices and ensuring widespread adoption 39. That is, variation in farm size, herd size and size of paddocks across farms are critical variables when scaling low-emissions livestock production. For instance, small-scale farmers may require different support mechanisms compared to large-scale farmers. Meanwhile, managing livestock across different herd sizes presents unique challenges. Example, small-scale producers may face difficulties in accessing markets and veterinary services, hindering their productivity and profitability, while, large-scale producers may require assistance in implementing sustainable intensification practices to mitigate environmental impacts associated with larger herds 40,41.
Policies and assistance programs should recognize these variations and provide targeted support based on farm sizes, ensuring that all farmers receive relevant guidance and resources. Similarly, the age of the household head is another critical variable, in our sample the average age of the household head is 52 years, indicating the need for intergenerational knowledge transfer and capacity building. Therefore, to ensure the continuity of sustainable livestock production practices, it is crucial to encourage younger generations to adopt and innovate sustainable farming techniques while leveraging the traditional knowledge and experience of older farmers 42,43. This intergenerational collaboration would foster the transfer of knowledge and skills necessary for long-term sustainability.
Promoting paddock division and implementing diverse management strategies to facilitate transition towards SPS adoption.
The variation in the number and size of paddocks across farms presents opportunities for optimizing paddock management and resource utilization. The average number of cattle paddocks on a farm (27) implies that farmers manage multiple paddocks for grazing purposes. Meanwhile, the results of the econometric models indicate that an increase in paddock size increases the probability that a paddock will be classified as non- adopter. This observation implies that the probability of adopting SPS practices at the paddock level increases with smaller paddocks, while simultaneously having a greater number of paddocks on the farm. This result similar to the results of 44 who found that the frequency of rotational grazing was influenced by farm size, the number of available paddocks, and whether the farm was primarily for livestock or crops. They also found that cost and labor constraints were major barriers to adoption.
Moreover, the finding that non-adoption at the paddock level is positively associated with the paddock's size suggests the prevalence of extensive livestock practices in the study area. This implies that extensive ranching practices may contribute to lower adoption of sustainable grazing practices, which could have negative impacts on soil health, ecosystem functioning, and livestock productivity. This indicates that promoting paddock division and implementing diversified management practices, such as improved pastures, can facilitate the adoption of sustainable practices. Through targeted training programs and extension services, farmers can learn and adopt best practices for paddock rotation. Implementing efficient paddock rotation strategies, improves forage quality, reduces soil erosion, and enhances livestock health and productivity 45. Therefore, policy interventions aimed at encouraging smaller paddock sizes and promoting sustainable land use practices can contribute to scaling up low-emissions livestock production systems.
Recognizing and communicating the broader benefits of SPS
The results of this study suggest that while Category_Farm-FA1 might have higher stocking rates and calving rate variability, the adoption of specific practices in Category_Farm-FA4 has led to relatively consistent calving rates and income stability, despite having fewer farms. This may be attributed to more effective management practices or strategies that have resulted in better income from milk and animal sales, even when the sample size is smaller. However, it is important to consider other factors that may have influenced these results, such as variations in market conditions, production practices46, or other economic factors. Broader benefits of SPS, include improved soil health, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience 47,48, which contribute to the sustainable development of the Colombian Amazon region.
The results of this study suggest that the adoption of SPS is not a sudden or immediate process, but rather a gradual and long-term trajectory. This implies that farmers and agricultural practitioners need to be patient and persistent in their efforts to implement sustainable practices. It is not enough to simply provide them with information and resources; they also require sufficient time for on-farm experimentation and learning. This finding further emphasizes the need for continuous support and guidance throughout the adoption process. Also, the adoption of SPS requires a steadfast commitment to conservation practices49. It is not a one-time action, but an ongoing commitment to sustainable and environmentally friendly practices. This commitment involves not only the initial implementation of SPS but also the maintenance and continuous improvement of these practices over time. It requires a mindset shift towards prioritizing long-term sustainability over short-term gains.
However, SPS adoption is not only beneficial for farm sustainability and productivity but is also associated with a higher commitment to conservation initiatives. This can have several positive consequences, including enhanced environmental protection (mitigation potential)50, biodiversity preservation, and a greater contribution to overall conservation goals. It indicates that the adoption of sustainable practices on farms goes hand in hand with a heightened sense of responsibility and participation in broader conservation efforts, highlighting the potential for a win-win scenario where agriculture and environmental conservation can mutually benefit51. Also there exist gender differentials in these benefits where female farmers have more propensity to engage in conservation practices as compared to their male counterparts. This can be further confirmed on ‘Supplementary Table 2’.
Although the immediate financial benefits may not be apparent from SPS adoption, policymakers should consider and communicate the long-term ecological and socio-economic advantages. Furthermore, the absence of statistically significant positive differences in income from milk sales and from sales of animals among farms with different levels of SPS adoption is an important result to consider. While financial gains associated with SPS adoption are long term, it is crucial to acknowledge the potential long-term benefits that SPS practices can bring, such as enhanced ecosystem services, improved soil fertility, and resilience to climate change. These non-monetary benefits, although not captured directly in the income indicators, contribute to the overall sustainability and resilience of the livestock production systems.
Significant variations in certain cattle production indicators exist among farms according to their degree of SPS adoption. Notably, there were substantial positive variations in stocking rates among farms that varied in their degree of SPS adoption within their paddocks. This enhancement of stocking rate levels implies that SPS practices possess the potential to augment the overall productivity of cattle farms in the long term. This finding aligns with the goals of low-emissions livestock production systems, as it suggests that SPS adoption does not lead to a trade-off between environmental sustainability and productivity.
Moreover, our results also suggest that farms that comprised a combination of paddocks with natural and improved pastures, planted and stable trees, livestock aqueducts, and fodder banks exhibited a higher percentage of calving cows. This finding suggests a positive relationship between the adoption of diverse SPS components and calving rates, potentially indicating improved reproductive performance and herd health in such farms. These results are consistent to previous studies and highlight the importance to put in place environmental safeguards to prevent deforestation leakage from efforts to scaling SPS 15 .
Reaching out to farmers who have not yet participated in SPS projects and enabling investments in low-emissions livestock production.
Participation in SPS projects does not necessarily translate into immediate adoption of SPS. Results from this study indicate that farmers have on average benefited from SPS projects at least 0.64 times. However, the high standard deviation suggests a concentration of project resources on some farmers, leaving others with limited access to support. This finding further suggests that some non-adopter farmers engage in SPS projects as a means of exploring alternative approaches or seeking support for their existing practices 52. Widespread adoption of low-emissions livestock production systems demands an equitable distribution of projects and resources 53.
Therefore, policymakers and project implementers should prioritize reaching out to farmers who have not yet participated in SPS projects, ensuring that they receive necessary resources, training, and technical assistance while making available incentives for incentivizing farmers who already participate in SPS projects. As we see on ‘supplementary Fig. 1’ where very few farmers have SPS projects intervention on their farms. This approach fosters a sense of inclusivity and ensures that the benefits of sustainable livestock production reach all farmers in the region, regardless of their previous project participation. Particularly, considering that our model results suggest that the proximity of positive SPS interventions has a significant impact on the likelihood of adopting higher SPS levels in paddocks. Additionally, paddocks that participate in multiple projects, events, and training related to SPS are more likely to be classified as SPS adopters. This, in turn, reduces the probability of a paddock being a non-adopter with improved pasture 54. To address this, policy interventions should focus on providing targeted training and technical support to farmers who are non-adopters, ensuring that they have the necessary resources and knowledge to transition towards sustainable practices 39.
Furthermore, the negative association of high medium adoption with age could be explained by the fact that, older household heads may be more resistant to change and less likely to adopt new agricultural practices, including the silvopastoral system. They may have established traditional farming methods and may be less inclined to adopt innovative approaches. Additionally, our results support previous studies that conclude that addressing credit constraints is essential to facilitate the adoption of sustainable practices by providing farmers with the financial resources necessary for their implementation. 55, Policymakers, financial institutions, and stakeholders should collaborate to improve access to credit for farmers, enabling them to invest in low-emissions livestock production technologies and infrastructure 56. In particular, our results indicate that 56% of the surveyed farmers have access to credit. They also indicate that the variable access to credits is positively linked with both non-adopter with improved pastures and medium-high adopter paddocks but negatively associated with basic adopter paddocks. This underscores the notion that when a non-adopter paddock starts incorporating pastures, it necessitates a financial investment for land preparation and division. Similarly, transitioning from being a basic adopter to a more intensive stage of adoption involving elements like livestock agreements and live fences also requires augmented financial support. Despite this we argue that further analyses are needed to explore credit access and its implications for the scalability of these production systems.
Targeting female heads of household
Targeting female heads of household can be an effective approach for scaling sustainable livestock production systems. Policymakers should consider gender-specific interventions, such as providing training, financial resources, and support networks for female-headed households to enhance their capacity to adopt and implement SPS practices57. It is evident that most farmers are male, with women representing only 15% of the sampled farmers. This gender disparity is a crucial factor to consider when designing interventions and policies to promote sustainable livestock production moreover our multinomial logit results shows that female farmers are more likely to adopt SPS practices compared to their male counterparts20.
By targeting female heads of household, we can empower women and enhance their participation in decision-making processes related to livestock production. This can lead to more inclusive and sustainable practices on farms. Furthermore, the findings highlight the importance of gender in SPS adoption. Female-headed cattle farms with fewer paddocks have a lower probability of being non-adopters and are more likely to adopt SPS practices at the paddock level. It is observed in our results that, on average, female heads of households are more motivated to conserve forests on their farm for environmental reasons than their male counterparts (see Appendix A.3). Additionally, even though the differential between the economic value of the land on their farm and that of their neighbors is greater for male heads of households (Approx. 1 million $COP) than for females (Approx. 0.5 million $COP), female heads of households consider that this difference is because, on their farm, there is the presence of water sources and biodiversity. These results suggest that women adopt SPS more intensively because they are more willing to conserve and protect the environment than men. As other studies have reported, women often play a significant role in agricultural activities, including livestock management, but their contributions are often undervalued and overlooked 58 .