Social Justice in Your Name?!

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3689610/v1

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Social Justice in Your Name?!

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3689610/v1

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Social justice is a cornerstone of a fair society, impacting critical areas like human rights and economic growth. While disparities related to factors such as race and socioeconomic status are well-documented, a less explored issue is "alphabetical discrimination." This phenomenon involves ordering and potentially judging individuals based on the alphabetical sequence of their last names. In this study, we show that such a form of discrimination might influence significant life choices, particularly the selection of college majors. Leveraging datasets from two major universities in US and China, our results indicate that US students with earlier last name initials are significantly more likely to opt for liberal arts over STEM subjects. This tendency may be linked to variations in personality development stemming from their experiences with alphabetical order practices during their K-12 education. Notably, this trend is absent among international students from countries where alphabetical name order is not prevalent. These findings offer new insights into how one’s name can shape educational decisions and trajectories. Our findings provide implications for crafting policies that address such inadvertent biases, ensuring that all students, regardless of their last names, have equal opportunities and visibility.

Social justice promotes fairness and equity across many aspects of society and is critical to human rights, economic growth, social stability, and many more. Yet, various evidence reveals significant disparities in social justice issues within the education systems across countries, including the United States¹. These disparities permeate the entire knowledge chain, impacting education access², process³, and outcomes⁴. Addressing these issues is of utmost urgency, particularly in relation to fostering diversity in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education participation and success. In the United States, studies have consistently shown disparities based on race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender^1,5–7 within the education system. Students from marginalized communities often face barriers to accessing quality education, including limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers⁸. Similar issues can also be observed in other countries' education systems^9,10. Around the globe, students from disadvantaged backgrounds encounter obstacles that hinder their educational progress^11,12. These obstacles may include limited access to educational resources, societal biases and prejudices, and systemic inequities¹³.

However, social justice was often, like in many aforementioned studies, viewed in terms of social privileges related to race, gender, wealth, age, and other common demographic characteristics¹⁴. Some non-traditional aspects of social justice, such as alphabetical discrimination, have received limited attention, especially in education and the labor market^14–17. Alphabetical discrimination is a prevalent practice where individuals are arranged based on the alphabetical order of the initial letter in their names, typically their last name, in various social contexts such as school rosters, waiting lines, or co-authored paper presentations. Consequently, individuals may face a form of "discrimination" as they are consistently positioned either at the beginning or end of the name sequence due to their last names. For instance, individuals with last names starting with 'A' or 'B' might feel added pressure when they are consistently the first participants in a game if the order of participation is determined by the initial letter of their last name, or vice versa. In the academic sphere, it has been proposed that the alphabetical order of the last name initial can significantly impact one's academic success, particularly in top-tier economics departments where authorship often follows alphabetical ordering. However, this practice is not as prevalent in some other academic fields where authorship is typically based on the order of contribution¹⁸.

Alphabetical discrimination can even give rise to social justice concerns at an early stage in one's life, such as participation in the labor market and subsequent outcomes. An experiment conducted by Carlson and Conard¹⁹ involving undergraduate students explored the influence of last name order on the timing of item acquisition. They found that individuals with earlier last name initials tend to acquire new items more rapidly. Thomas Zych, a write-in candidate in the 2004 US presidential election, shared his experience of being disadvantaged due to his placement at the end of the last name alphabetical order, which impacted his classroom opportunities and social interactions with classmates and teachers during childhood. Such early experiences of alphabetical discrimination could have long-lasting effects on an individual’s life, particularly if they influence the development of one's psychological beliefs about their academic and career capabilities and, therefore, one’s field of study and career choice.

Research in the realm of alphabetical discrimination is rather limited, and there is a scarcity of studies investigating its potential connection with children’s engagement in education. To address this gap, our study aims to explore the broad hypothesis that the order of one’s last name may influence one's later educational choices in college majors. We hypothesize that the alphabetical ordering of last names may influence students' psychological development, including aspects of their personality, such as their receptiveness to new ideas. If students possess last names situated towards the latter part of the alphabet, they could experience reduced prominence within both classroom and school engagements. This diminished visibility may subsequently deter their enthusiasm for engaging in academic pursuits that necessitate increased interpersonal communication and collaborative teamwork. Instead, they may find themselves more drawn to endeavors that rely on individual effort. Such experiences could potentially contribute to the development of a less open personality during their formative years. We postulate that these variations in personality may ultimately manifest in the students' selection of college majors. Our resulting hypotheses are as follows:

Hypothesis I

When students choose their college majors, those with early last name initials are more likely to select liberal arts majors over the conventional STEM disciplines.

Hypothesis II

Students scoring higher on openness in their personality traits are more inclined to opt for liberal arts majors.

The underlying connection between Hypotheses I and II lies in the notion that students’ personality traits could influence their decisions regarding their choice of college majors. If the order of last name initials indeed contributes to variations in personality development, it would, in turn, impact students' selections of majors during their college years. To rigorously assess our hypotheses and establish causal links to the greatest extent feasible, we took advantage of two unique datasets collected in vastly distinct cultural and institutional contexts. We examined college student registrar data compiled from two national research universities, one located in the US and the other in China.

Please note that alphabetical ordering is widely utilized in the US. In contrast, in China, urban areas employ both alphabetical and stroke count-based ordering systems, while most rural areas do not follow any specific ordering method. Therefore, it is unlikely to observe that the last name order would have much impact on Chinese students' personality development and major choices. However, Chinese students are subject to a different social injustice that goes beyond their control, such as the rural–urban residential registration system. Students from rural residential households are often considered “inferiorly” than those from urban residential households, which may lead to a difference in their personality development. Therefore, we further refine Hypotheses I as the following:

Hypothesis I (a)

Students in the US with an earlier last name initial are more likely to choose a liberal arts major compared to the traditional STEM majors.

Hypothesis I (b)

Students in China with an earlier last name initial show no pattern in major choices between liberal arts majors and STEM majors.

If both hypotheses are validated, they offer preliminary support for establishing a causal connection between the alphabetical order of last names and students’ major choices, mediated by differences in personality. The China scenario would demonstrate two important points: (1) the significance of personality in shaping college major preferences, and (2) a counterfactual case where last name ordering has no impact on personality development, but urban-rural residency does. Hence, students' major choices differ by urban-rural residence but not by last name order.

This study offers significant implications and insights for policy development in the field of education, particularly concerning children's psychological and behavioral development mechanisms. The findings of this research can contribute to the design of effective and equitable policies within US classrooms and in a global context. By gaining insight into how last names influence students' academic choices in college, policymakers and educators can implement appropriate measures to guarantee equal participation opportunities in STEM fields for all student demographics, thereby fostering a diverse and dynamic STEM workforce. Additionally, policymakers and educators can formulate guidelines that tackle potential discrimination and actively promote fairness and inclusivity within educational systems. Additionally, these insights are valuable for behavior economists, as they provide a new perspective for modeling the decision-making processes, especially in development economics, where education and workforce participation play crucial roles in strategies addressing poverty. Furthermore, this research contributes to theories in science and technology studies by examining an understudied factor: name discrimination and its influence on individuals' decisions to pursue STEM fields and careers. It highlights the significance of considering various factors, including names, when analyzing academic and career involvement patterns.

• Last Name Initials Influence US Students’ College Major Choices

We estimated a linear probability model on US students’ choice of liberal arts major. We did the analysis on their ACT scores when applying for admission to the college as an additional check whether the last name order affects students’ academic performance. For comparison purposes, we replicated the analysis for international students from China and South Korea, both of which have different languages and name ordering systems (thus, less likely to have the last name alphabetical order experience in their childhood). We expected no association between their name ordering and college major choice among these East-Asian students. Table 1 presents the regression results.

We found that US students with an earlier last name initial are significantly more likely to choose a liberal arts major (β = -0.006, p < 0.01) than those with later last name initials, thus supporting Hypothesis I (a). This effect holds even after we control students’ gender, ethnic group, in-state residency status, and birth year fixed effects. For Chinese and South Korean International students studying in the same university (thus facing the same curriculum choices), there is no impact on major choices from their last name alphabetical ordering. For the ACT score analysis, the last name initial does not appear to affect the student's performance in the ACT exam for both the US students and the Chinese and South Korean Students in the same university.

Note that we have controlled some social and demographic variables. While the results should be interpreted carefully, we found that there is no difference in the observed pattern between the US students and Chinese/South Korean students on the same campus: Male students are less likely to choose liberal arts majors and score a little higher in ACT exam than their female counterparts; In-state resident students are less likely to choose liberal arts major and score lower in ACT exam than out-of-state resident students. The results provide further support to the causal inferences on last name effects in US student’s major choices (Hypothesis I (a)), which is likely due to differences in one’s personality development (Hypothesis II) as a result of last name initial alphabetical ordering experience.

Table 1

**Linear Probability Regression for liberal arts major choices in a US university, 2012–2022**. Last name initial order = 1 for last name initial from A to G; = 2 from H to O; = 3 from P to Z. C/SK stands for China/South Korea. The stars indicate the level of significance: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.
Outcome	Bachelor of Liberal Arts Major			ACT Scores
	US-students	US students	C/SK students	US-students	US students	C/SK students
Intercept	21.37***	0.27***	0.33***	-275.7***	31.38***	31.44***
Last name initial order	-0.006***	-0.007***	0.002	0.007	0.007	-0.175
Social-demographic control variables
Male	-0.07***	-0.07***	-0.095***	1.10***	1.10***	0.61***
Non-white	0.011***	-0.004	-	-1.46***	-1.44***	-
In-state resident	-0.018***	-0.019***	-0.080*	-1.86***	-1.85***	-1.74***
Birth year	-0.01***	-	-	0.15***	-	-
Birth year fixed effect		X	X		X	X
Number of obs.	66534	66534	5484	54595	54595	646
F-statistics	239.95	23.66	7.33	1590.61	33.71	6.11
R-square	0.0177	0.0073	0.0129	0.1272	0.1089	0.0493

• Personality Traits Influence Chinese Students’ College Major Choices

Our results based on US students suggest possible connections between the last name alphabetic order and their college major choice. One plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that certain educational practices in K-12 settings, organized by last name alphabetical order, may impact students' personality development. These variations in personality development could subsequently lead to disparities in college major choices. To address the absence of such data among the group of US students we studied, we conducted a parallel analysis using a cohort of students studying at a Chinese university.

Like the US study, we use a linear probability model to examine student's college major choices. We first test Hypothesis II by examining the impact of personality traits on major choices. We then examine how factors may affect students' personality development. Results are presented in Table 2. Our results from the China study provide supporting evidence to Hypothesis II: Students scoring higher on openness personalities are more likely to choose a BA major than those who score lower. It confirms our findings in the US study for international students and provides further support to Hypothesis I(b): Given the difference in last name ordering practices in the educational system, there is no evidence of last name effects on either personality development or major choices for the Chinese students.

Furthermore, our China study finds the same gender effects as in the US study: male students are less likely to choose BA majors than female students. The personality results suggest that such difference is due to differences in personality: male students score lower on openness than female students, while students scoring higher on openness are more likely to choose BA majors than less open students. Interestingly, we find similar mechanisms in the rural-urban household disparity: students from rural area households are less open than their urban peers and are less likely to choose BA majors.

In summary, the results from our China study corroborate the findings from our US study. The prevalence of using alphabetical ordering in last name initials in US classrooms may create social injustice in children's personality development and have a long-term impact on their college major choices.

Table 2

**Linear Probability Regression for personality and major choices in a Chinese university, class of 2024**. Last name initial order = 1 for last name initial from A to K; = 2 from L to W; = 3 from X to Z. Parents educations achievement level 1 − 3: Middle school or below; High school; Associate degree (reference group: Bachelor degree and higher). The stars indicate the level of significance: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.
Outcome	Big-Five Personality Traits					Bachelor of Liberal Arts Major
Outcome	Extraversion	Agreeableness	Openness	Conscientiousness	Neuroticism	Bachelor of Liberal Arts Major
Intercept	6.22***	8.30***	7.84***	6.90***	5.84***	0.55***	0.42***
Last name order	0.06	-0.04	0.05	0.02	0.05	-0.007	-
Openness	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.01**
Male	-0.06	-0.03	-0.29***	-0.10*	0.34***	-0.26***	-0.25***
Parents' education level 1–3	-0.24**	0.10	-0.72***	-0.05	-0.14	0.04	-0.01
	-0.14	-0.10	-0.31***	-0.22***	-0.08	0.05*	0.02
	-0.02	0.01	-0.12	-0.17**	0.01	0.03	0.02
Rural area Household	-0.04	0.06	-0.16**	-0.06	-0.02	-0.08***	-
Number of obs.	3182	3182	3182	3182	3182	3228	3182
F-statistics	2.23	1.74	23.65	3.07	6.55	44.13	48.59
R-square	0.004	0.003	0.043	0.004	0.012	0.076	0.071

Our findings demonstrate that the commonly employed practice of arranging students based on the alphabetical order of their last names in K-12 education has an impact on their college major choices, mediated through the development of their personalities. While we acknowledge that this study lacks a randomized controlled trial (RCT) for establishing definitive causal inference, our results offer valuable insights for various education stakeholders.

Our results provide practice implications for educators, career counseling and guidance, higher education policies, students, and the general public. We show evidence of the potential unintended consequences of using alphabetical order in classroom arrangements and activities. This knowledge could lead to more thoughtful seating arrangements and educational practices in K12 education. This may further lead to tailored guidance and support by career counselors and advisors who work with students, understanding that early education experiences may affect major choices. More importantly, our findings provide evidence-based insights to prompt discussions and potential policy changes within educational institutions to mitigate any negative effects or biases. For students, our results could raise awareness about how seemingly minor factors in their educational journey may influence their self-perception and decision-making. This awareness could empower them to make more informed choices. Our findings could also raise awareness among parents, educators, and students about the potential implications of last name order if publicized appropriately. This, in turn, might lead to more informed discussions and actions within communities.

To mitigate the unintended consequences of last name effect across cultures, the findings of our paper offer suggestions for macro-level education policy designs in several ways. Policy nudging, an approach rooted in behavioral economics, can offer valuable insights for designing education policies that can mitigate the influence of last name order on college major choices. Policy nudging refers to the use of subtle and indirect interventions to influence people's behavior and decision-making without restricting their freedom of choice ^20,21. Nudging has been used in policies such as energy conservation ²², organ donation ²³, and retirement saving ²⁴. In the case of potential policy practices to mitigate last name effects at the early of a child's personality development, randomizing seating arrangements might help remove the unintentional impact of last name order, allowing students to make choices based on personal interests and aptitudes. Targeted information campaigns can also be deployed to ensure that students have access to comprehensive and unbiased information about various college majors, empowering them to make informed decisions. Throughout the K-12 education process, it is crucial for educators to expose students to diverse role models and fostering interdisciplinary education initiatives that challenge stereotypes and encourage exploration of diverse academic interests, enabling students to pursue their passions irrespective of their name order. Additionally, creating inclusive classroom environments that value and celebrate diverse perspectives fosters a supportive atmosphere where students can thrive academically. These potential education nudging policies can nudge students towards making choices aligned with their individual interests and strengths, promoting greater equity in college major selection.

Our findings also highlight the importance of investigating the implications of last name effects across diverse cultural contexts. We showed that for US students, there is a significant association between their last name order and college major choice, as many school systems in US implement last name order for classroom activities. In the case of China, there is a huge variation in terms of how different provinces and how rural vs. urban areas arrange class activities with last name order – some follow last name order, while others do not. This explains why there is no association between last name order and student's college major choice. However, we found that across the US context and the China context, the mechanism of personality development on college major choice might apply. In the China context, we found that students with more open personality are more likely to choose liberal arts majors in college. In the US, those with earlier last name initials are more likely to choose liberal arts major, potentially related to how this last name order might also influence their childhood personality development, as these students are always the first of those being called by teacher to do classroom and school activities.

The study addresses a unique and unexpected factor—alphabetical order—which, until now, may not have been widely considered in relation to personality development and educational outcomes. The novelty of the research can stimulate intellectual curiosity and expand the horizons of what is explored within psychology, education, and related fields. The study may shed light on the impact of seemingly minor educational practices on students' lives. This could provoke discussions within the scientific community and among educators and policymakers about the need for educational reforms to ensure fairness and equity in the classroom. The study of social justice in an educational context holds significant potential for advancing both the fields of science of science and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). By delving into social justice issues within education, researchers gain valuable insights into the mechanisms of inequality and oppression prevalent in academic settings. This understanding contributes to a broader scientific comprehension of social dynamics, power structures, and systemic biases that influence scientific knowledge production and dissemination.

All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The need for informed consent is waived by IRB office at University of Wisconsin-Madison, which has determined that the proposed research activity is not research involving human subjects as defined by DHHS and FDA regulations, therefore IRB review and approval is not required. Our research relies on the undergraduate enrollment data from the registrar's office of two universities, one in the US and the other in China. We focus on undergraduate enrollment data because our hypothesis on children's education participation due to personality development and formation are most likely observed in their first life choice when turning 18: going to college and choosing a major. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, about 61.8% of high school graduates have entered college in 2021. This number is the lowest since the 1990s, likely due to the pandemic. In 2018, this rate is about 70%. Therefore, we believe the undergraduate student data could offer a tangible representation of how a child is being shaped in certain ways.

For the US university, we obtained data from the registrar’s office on undergraduate students enrolled between 2013 and 2022. We observe a student's declared major, GPA, ACT/SAT scores, degree awarded, and demographic information, including the last name initial of students, gender, date of birth, nationality, and ethnic groups. In total, we have 74953 student observations, of which 67380 have declared their major. For our purpose of study, we divide the students into US students (66534) and foreign students (8419).

For the Chinese university, data elements is composed of the administrative records and freshman year survey data of the class of 2024 cohort, the University ranks among the top 10 universities in China. The administrative records include the student's full name, gender, GPA, and major. The freshman year survey data include student's household registration (hukou) before college, father's education and mother's education, etc. It also contains students' personality assessment, the Big-Five personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Working sample include 3228 students, of which 1180 are with rural residency (including township/county residency).

For Hypothesis I (a), we conduct our analysis by estimating a linear probability model on US students' choice of liberal arts major. We estimate the model with additional control variables on student's social and demographic characteristics such as gender, ethnic groups, in-state residency, and birth year. We control the birth years as there might be differences in 1) alphabetical ordering activities in school over time; and 2) whether the last name effects would wear out over time. We deal with the birth year effects by including them as a control variable in the regression and treating them as time-fixed effects.

To infer causality on the last name effect and the additional test of Hypothesis I (b), we replicated the analysis for international students in the same US university from China and South Korea, where the students grow up with a different language system and likely different alphabetical ordering rules (thus less likely to have the last name alphabetical order experience in their childhood). As another test for potential causal inference, we check the last name effects on student's ACT scores, with the same other control variables and birth year fixed effects, for US students and China/South Korean students, respectively. As implied by Hypothesis II, the last name effects are expected to play a role in students' psychological and behavioral development, but not necessarily academic performance.

For Hypothesis II, we utilize the unique dataset from Chinese students to test whether personality traits, especially "openness," would have an impact on major choices. We can further examine the impact of exogenous factors, such as last name, gender, and household registration area, on the development of students' personality trait.

Unlike the first name, which is endogenously chosen, the last name is exogenous (or a choice between the mother's or father's last name). Other control variables in our analysis such as gender, in-state residency, and ethnic group are also exogenous. Our comparison studies using character-based language foreign students from China and South Korea, as well as the falsify test analysis with students' ACT score would be used to establish the confidence that our observed last name effect among US students on their choice of liberal arts major are likely causal effects.

Author contributions

GS developed the conceptual model and designed research; GS, KC, CN performed research; GS, KC, CN, SXN, HL analyzed data; GS, KC, CN, SXN, HL wrote the paper.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to restrictions based on an agreement with a third-party organization. These restrictions prevent the sharing of the data as it contains confidential information. However, aggregate data that does not reveal any confidential information may be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to the approval of the third-party organization.

Codes used to generate the results of the current study are available at the Github repository: https://github.com/MetascienceLab/NameJustice

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests

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No competing interests reported.

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Social Justice in Your Name?!

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Abstract

Introduction

Results

• Last Name Initials Influence US Students’ College Major Choices

• Personality Traits Influence Chinese Students’ College Major Choices

Discussion

Methods

Declarations

References

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