Our analysis highlights the usefulness of using spatial allocation methods based on the distribution of harvested species and records of fishing agreements, licenses or observed fishing access inside EEZs of West Africa as a way to identify the level of overlap and competition between local fishers and DWF. Illegal incursions by DWFs and regional trawlers into inshore exclusion zones (IEZ) (i.e., areas reserved to safeguard the interests of small–scale fishing operations) are of particular concern in the region7,35. It has been observed in the literature that nearly 6% of the industrial fishing effort in the waters around most African countries occurs in zones reserved for small-scale fishing communities8. These incursions threaten the sustainability of fish stocks, create conflict over those resources, and endanger the lives of the fishers themselves8. For instance, to curb these illegal incursions, Ghana uses a system of IEZ reserved for artisanal fishers24.
In West Africa, small-scale fisheries account for approximately 44% of total landed catches and 48% of the total landed value exceeding 1.8 million tonnes and generating over 2 billion USD per year36, and supports the livelihood and food security of approximately 6.7 million people3. The domestic marine fishing fleet consists of about 54,000 small–scale canoes, pirogues and about 3,300 industrial vessels (20% foreign flagged) operate in the waters of West Africa35. However, overexploitation and poor governance have led to competition between domestic and DWF fleets, causing a decline in fisheries resources and increased poverty in coastal fishing communities1.
While many West African countries have policies and legal frameworks for granting fishing access through licenses or permits, there are disparities in regulations regarding gear, mesh size, and spatial restrictions. Most of access agreements EU enters with African nations have been criticized for contributing to the overexploitation of fish stock, 37,38. Thus, such agreements have contributed directly to food sufficiency issues39. Many countries lack a quota system to control foreign fleet access based on catch volume40. The European Union (EU) has signed several Fisheries Partnership Agreements with West African countries, and Chinese and EU-owned fleets negotiate fishing access through private joint ventures. The terms and conditions of these agreements are often undisclosed 3,30,41,42. Some of these joint ventures also provides specific details about fishing agreements with Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, and Senegal. Additionally, the presence of foreign DWFs from countries like Canada, China, Occupied Palestine, Japan, South Korea, Norway, Russia, Taiwan, and the USA has been observed in the region, although the details of their agreements are unclear. This competition between domestic fleets and DWFs for fishing space and resources in West Africa often leads to conflicts and tensions42.
One of the key fisheries in this region is the bustling pelagic fishery. These pelagic fish species that inhabit the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean include migratory fish species such as sardines, mackerels, and anchovies which have higher nutritional value compared to other species 14 though a high number of catches are destined for fish meal43. Another highly valued fishery in West Africa was the vibrant tuna fishery. West Africa’s waters are habitat to several species of tuna, including skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna. The mangrove forests that lined the estuaries are habitat to prized delicacies that thrive in brackish waters – shrimp, mud crabs, and various species of shellfish. West Africa's demersal fisheries are characterized by the abundance of demersal fish species such as snapper, grouper, sea bream, and various flatfish. Additionally, the mangroves, lagoons, and estuaries of West Africa are abundant in various shellfish species including shrimp, lobsters, oysters, and crabs.
The average annual fish catch in West Africa is estimated at 2.3 million tonnes. The region’s domestic fleets catch about 75 percent and DWFs catch the remainder, indicating there is competition for fisheries resources between DWF and the region’s domestic fleet with huge implications for sustainability, given that IUU fishing represents 49 percent of the DWF catch. With such a high proportion assessed as IUU, the encroachment of DWFs activities contribute significantly to the depletion of fish stocks and the decline of certain species that were once abundant in the region1.
The study acknowledges the complexity of studying DWF in West Africa and highlights several limitations that need to be considered. We used the latest year of the data in SAU database only up to 2018, and there may have been significant changes since then, such as the impact of the COVID–19 pandemic. To mitigate these limitations, information from ground truthing exercises and expert consultations was used to validate the results.
The study recognizes that DWF activities in West Africa may involve non–compliance with reporting and licensing regulations, leading to limited transparency1. This makes it challenging to accurately track the operations of foreign fleets and understand their impact on fish stocks and ecosystems. Long-term data on DWF activities in the region is also limited, hindering the analysis of trends and cumulative effects.
While many West African countries have policies and legal frameworks for fisheries access, there is no common regulation regarding gear or mesh size. Disparities exist in spatial restrictions, including exclusion zones for industrial fishing and zones reserved for small–scale fisheries. Licensing based on vessel capacity rather than catch volume has proven ineffective in controlling overexploitation. Some foreign fleets, such as those owned by the European Union and China, negotiate fishing access through private joint ventures, with unclear and non-publicized terms and conditions. These results indicate a need to improve fisheries data collection and analysis to support decision-making and policy formulation.
The study emphasizes the importance of comprehensive data collection, increased patrols or monitoring, and surveillance systems to assess the ecological, economic, and social impacts of DWF in West Africa. Collaboration among West African countries, international organizations, and stakeholders is crucial to develop effective management strategies and ensure the sustainability of fisheries resources.
The study recommends further research to enhance understanding of DWF impacts. This includes improving data disaggregation for species, obtaining detailed data from agreements with third states, analyzing ownership structures of fishing vessels, and tracing seafood along the supply chain to prevent illegal fishing and seafood fraud.
Policy implications
To minimize the overexploitation of fish stocks in West Africa, we recommend that the vessel monitoring and surveillance measures in West Africa should be improved and coordinated for policy purposes given the nutritional and food justice consequences of DWF for food-insecure people across the region. Also, the region should model its regional management body after that of the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) to manage fisheries resources in the region. The Nauru Agreement was negotiated through collaborative efforts among Pacific Island nations. These nations recognized the need to jointly manage their tuna fisheries and ensure sustainability. Preliminary discussions laid the groundwork, followed by rounds of negotiations focusing on quotas, access fees, enforcement, and conservation44. Compromises were essential due to varying resources and geopolitical factors. The formal agreement was drafted, reviewed domestically, and ratified by the participating countries. Implementation involved the establishment of a regional authority, fostering ongoing cooperation for sustainable fisheries management44.
The Nauru Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Management of Fisheries of Common Interest (Nauru Agreement)45 is a significant and relevant international treaty in the context of fisheries management in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean. One of the most notable aspects of the Nauru Agreement is the implementation of the Vessel Day Scheme46. Under this scheme, member countries formed alliances to negotiate access as a bloc to balance power over agreements with DWF; and by doing so, collectively limit the number of fishing days available to foreign fishing vessels in their water46. This helps reduce fishing pressure from DWF40 and ensures that the fish stocks, specifically tuna, are harvested sustainably.
Modeling a regional fisheries management body in West Africa after the FFA presents a strategic approach, owing to numerous shared characteristics and challenges. Both regions feature extensive coastlines and vast EEZs, necessitating the effective management of fisheries resources to deter overexploitation. Moreover, fisheries serve as a cornerstone of livelihoods, income, and local food security in both areas, underscoring the critical importance of sustainable management practices.
Furthermore, the movement of fish stocks across borders is a common occurrence in both regions, making cooperative management imperative to prevent resource depletion. IUU fishing remains a significant issue, resulting in resource depletion and economic losses in West Africa47.
The suitability of the Pacific Islands FFA model for West Africa is evident. The FFA has excelled in fostering collaboration among Pacific Island nations, facilitating improved negotiations with distant water fishing nations. This approach, founded on resource and expertise sharing, offers valuable lessons for West African countries. Additionally, FFA's implementation of sustainable fisheries management practices, like the Vessel Day Scheme, can be adapted to the specific context of West Africa, enhancing control over catch limits.
The Pacific Islands FFA model also champions effective Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance (MCS) mechanisms, including vessel tracking and the deployment of observers. West Africa stands to benefit significantly from adopting these strategies to combat IUU fishing effectively.
However, it is essential to acknowledge the challenges. West Africa possesses different social and political dynamics from the Pacific Islands, potentially complicating the harmonization of regulations and policies. Furthermore, West African nations may need to make substantial investments in infrastructure, technology, and human resources to achieve a level of capacity commensurate with the success of the FFA model.