This section examined countries that contributed significantly to nuclear contamination research. This shows how nuclear contamination has become a worldwide concern gaining attention from numerous countries. By carefully examining the keyword co-occurrence network, it revealed the main topics and research hotspots in nuclear contamination studies from 2019 to 2023. The third part, based on Ibn Khaldun’s ecological perspective, explores how nuclear contamination affects vital ecological resources and urban culture. The fourth part, based on Ibn Khaldun’s economic theory, examines how nuclear contamination affects economic growth and civilization.
Top prominent countries documenting nuclear pollution
Figure 1 depicts the rankings of the top ten nations based on their publication output and citation impact. China’s research efforts are highlighted by its impressive performance of 183 articles and an exceptional 1698 citations, solidifying its leading position in the field. The United States closely follows, ranking second with 92 publications and 939 citations. The United Kingdom ranks third with 47 articles and 833 citations. Furthermore, Fig. 1 displays three separate clusters that have highly interconnected citation links, each identified by a different color. Cluster 1, shown in green, includes Germany, Russia, Spain, and the United States. Cluster 2, shown in blue, comprises China, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and South Korea. Cluster 3, shown in red, includes France and Japan. The strong inter-citation links between these clusters emphasize their joint endeavors in pursuing common research objectives.
Keyword co-occurrence of nuclear pollution studies
The researchers set the minimum co-occurrence of keywords to 15 and merged synonymous items, resulting in 29 relevant keywords. Figure 2 illustrates the co-occurrence network of keywords in nuclear pollution studies, revealing three discernible clusters differentiated by distinct colors. Cluster 1, highlighted in red, comprises 12 nodes, focusing primarily on the impact of nuclear pollution on air resources. The most important keyword is air-pollution (Total lines strength = 165, occurrences = 74). Cluster 2, highlighted in green, consists of 9 nodes, focusing on the impact of nuclear pollution on water resources. The pivotal keyword is water (Total lines strength = 32, occurrences = 39). Cluster 3, in blue, includes 8 nodes, emphasizing the impact of nuclear pollution on the development of renewable energy and economic growth. The critical keyword is renewable energy (Total lines strength = 93, occurrences = 32). Figure 2 illustrates the primary areas of interest for researchers studying the impacts of nuclear pollution, including water, air, renewable energy, and economics.
Figure 3 depicts the co-occurrence overlay network of nuclear pollution studies. Utilizing the overlay network, researchers identified five recent prominent terms: nuclear energy (occurrences = 18, Avg. pub. year: 2022.00), economic-growth (occurrences = 25, Avg. pub. year: 2021.84), environmental Kuznets curve (occurrences = 15, Avg. pub. year: 2021.80), Co2 emission (occurrences = 31, Avg. pub. year: 2021.71), and consumption (occurrences = 17, Avg. pub. year: 2021.71).
Analyzing the ecological impacts of nuclear pollution through Ibn Khaldun’s perspective
Although Ibn Khaldun’s discussion on environmentally sustainable development is relatively restricted, he accurately recognized the influence of the natural environment on both humanity and human civilization (Hassanzadeh 2020; Demircioglu 2014). Ibn Khaldun argued that individual qualities, including physical appearance, mental well-being, personality, lifestyle, and general health, are influenced by the natural environment (Khaldun 2014). Furthermore, nature has exerted a significant influence on the formation, advancement, and deterioration of human civilization (Demircioglu 2014). Ibn Khaldun’s ecological perspective, which is considered a vital aspect of his sociological theory, allows him to examine the value of nature in human civilization (Ab Hamid et al. 2020).
Khaldun states, When the air is stagnant and bad or close to corrupt waters or putrid pools or swamps, it is speedily affected by putrescence and it is unavoidable that all living beings who are there will speedily be affected by illness…... Towns, where no attention is paid to good air, have, as a rule, much illness…… There is a water problem. The place should be on a river, or near springs with plenty of fresh water. The existence of water will be a general convenience to the inhabitants (Khaldun 2015, p.406–407).
This quote provides a thorough analysis of the content of the Muqaddimah regarding nature, with a special emphasis on the impact of water and air resources on the positioning of cities, public health, and the progress of urban civilization. The fundamental causes of the downfall of urban civilization are human activities that degrade water and air quality, leading to disease epidemics, population reduction, and migration (Weiss 1995; Ali 2006). The impacts of nuclear contamination on air, water, and human health extend well beyond the scope of Ibn Khaldun’s discourse. According to Ibn Khaldun’s logic, nuclear contamination is a catalyst for ecological degradation, which will ultimately have an impact on the progress of human civilization. Indeed, there has been a longstanding debate on the detrimental impact of natural resource depletion on the progress of human civilization. For example, Akhtar et al. (2021) stated that fresh water is not only a source of human existence but also a crucial driver for sustainable economic growth and civilizational advancement. Pollution of the natural resources on which humans rely will eventually influence the development of human civilization.
Analyzing the economic impacts of nuclear pollution through Ibn Khaldun’s perspective
Agriculture is a fundamental and crucial means of livelihood (Tayob 2022). Ibn Khaldun deduced that the quality of natural conditions and investments in land improvement, new plant cultivation, and advancements in agricultural technology have a direct impact on the costs of agriculture and subsequently affect the prices of agricultural products. This conclusion was reached by comparing the agricultural practices of the Berbers, who inhabited fertile land, with those of the Islamic followers who were expelled by Christians and settled on infertile terrain (Khaldun 2014).
Labor value is integrated into the value of commodities and enters the market, transforming into profits that circulate back to the workers through transactions. Hence, the accumulation of societal prosperity and the attainment of well-being for people are both accomplished through the value generated by labor (Hakim 2006). To facilitate the flow of goods in the market, it is necessary to ensure that the products retain utility according to the purchasing preferences of consumers, hence enabling the conversion of labor value into profit (Beik and Arsyianti 2006). When customers exhibit a negative inclination to make purchases, it hinders the movement of commodities and results in a decline in the demand for goods. At this juncture, the production yield of the commodity, the labor demand required for its production, and the commodity’s price will all decrease. Given the interconnectedness of the economic market, fluctuations in the price of one item typically have an impact on the price of another, eventually influencing the trajectory of the economy and the advancement of urban civilization (Muheramtohadi 2018; Hakim 2006).
Ibn Khaldun’s economic theory is deeply linked to the advancement of society, the stability of political systems, and the trajectory of human civilization (Kholiq et al. 2022). He highlighted the government’s regulatory function in economic activity and the substantial influence of policies on the market (Muslim 2017). The basic principle in Ibn Khaldun’s theory of good governance is the preservation of justice. Essentially, he created a circular structure that encourages the ongoing progress of civilization, and it is crucial to guarantee that every element inside it is positive (Chapra 1999). While academics have examined the elements in this cycle to different extents, they generally concur that the primary variables consist of the regime, economy, people (asabiyah), development, and justice. Justice and development are the fundamental components of the entire cycle system, with people’s solidarity as the motivating factor supporting positive growth (Chapra 1999; Gule 2014; Sümer 2012). Ibn Khaldun discusses the significance of social cohesiveness in economic growth and civilizational advancement, although he does not specifically refer to an extensive range of people when discussing solidarity. To maintain a sustained level of social cohesiveness, it is crucial to have strong leadership, adherence to ethical standards, fair tax policies, dedication to the well-being of people in general, and responsiveness to public feelings (Gierer 2001; Ab Halim 2014). Moreover, economic policies that impose excessive burdens on workers not only diminish their work motivation but also impede industrial activity, ultimately resulting in an economic downturn and a decline in national tax revenues. Diminished tax revenues can subsequently impact military outlays, jeopardizing national security and ultimately precipitating the downfall of the state and the collapse of civilization ((Islahi 2006; Rizkiah and Chachi 2020; Al Mamun et al. 2022).
Based on Khaldun’s economic theory, the presence of nuclear pollution will eventually jeopardize the survival of nations and lead to the downfall of civilizations. Undoubtedly, in the contemporary era, the variables influencing the survival of nations and the downfall of civilizations are much more intricate than during Khaldun’s era. Additionally, the economic challenges stemming from nuclear contamination may not pose an immediate threat to the lives of nations. However, nuclear contamination significantly influences the economic progress, health, and overall welfare of those residing in regions where it is released. Furthermore, it also impacts the amount of public support for those in authority and the speed of societal advancement.