The Ecological Tapestry of Lonar Crater: Biodiversity, Conservation Challenges, and Preservation Strategies of the Ecosystem

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3876457/v1

The Lonar Crater, a geological marvel located in Buldana District of India’s Maharashtra state, stands as a unique testament to Earth's natural history, formed around 30,000-50,000 years ago by a meteorite impact on Deccan Plateau basalts. The floral and faunal study of Lonar Lake is a comprehensive research endeavor aimed at understanding the biodiversity and ecological dynamics of this unique ecosystem. The study covered various significant points around the lake spanning a total distance of 3.2 km (aerial) and then back to the Lonar Lake entry point. The main objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of native flora and fauna and to assess the impact of introduced species on the native biodiversity of the area. This study deals into the diverse flora and fauna of the Lonar ecosystem, revealing 85 plant species, including natives, naturalized, and introduced varieties, alongside a rich avian and reptilian fauna. However, presently the ecosystem faces challenges, including invasive species, deforestation, and pollution. This research underscores the urgency of conservation efforts to protect Lonar's ecological balance and preserve its unique biodiversity.

Lonar Crater

Biodiversity

Ecological dynamics

Conservation

Geo-hydrological

The Lonar Crater, located in Maharashtra's Buldana District, is a geological marvel, formed 30,000-50,000 years ago by a meteorite impact on Deccan Plateau basalts (Fudali et al., 1980; Maloof et al., 2010). Lonar Lake, resulting from this impact, is a rare tropical soda lake, making it a distinctive feature on Earth (Koshy et al., 2018). Remarkably, it's the sole example of an impact crater created on volcanic flood basaltic rocks, drawing parallels with craters found on Mars (Hagerty and Newsom, 2003).

The crater is encompassed by steep escarpments rising about 130 meters above the lake level, forming a nearly circular shape with a circularity index of less than 0.9 (Dabhade, 2015). A breach in the north-eastern escarpment creates easy access to the lake basin through a deep gully. The outer rim of the lake basin measures approximately 6 km in circumference, while the inner rim spans 3.5 km. Lonar Lake's water is saline, with a maximum brine depth of 5.50 meters (Rao and Bhalla, 1984). Along the base of the breached north-eastern face lies an alluvial fan, densely covered with custard apple trees, adding to the unique charm of this exceptional natural site.

The Lonar crater is settled within a vast, monotonous plateau encircling it on all sides. This unique positioning has led to localized changes in key geographical, geological, climatic, and ecological aspects (Malu, Dhabade and Kodarkar, 2007). Enclosed from all directions, the lake forms a subterranean hollow, safeguarded against heavy winds, thereby maintaining a higher level of humidity and localized temperature (Babar, 2010). Owing to its distinctive geography, the lake basin is partially shielded from direct sunlight at various locations and times throughout the year. Apart from the springs, the lake also receives water due to percolation, given its low-level basin (Rao and Bhalla, 1984).

Within the Lonar ecosystem, a ingenious blend of flora and fauna thrives, adapting to localized variations in soil, water, and humidity. The unique geo-hydrological and climatic conditions have led to the evolution of distinct sub-ecosystems (Riedel et al., 2015). This site holds immense geological and archaeological significance, not only for India but also on a global scale. The unique combination of geological features and micro-ecological attributes in Lonar Lake water has fascinated researchers worldwide. Geologists, ecologists, archaeologists, naturalists, and astronomers from diverse backgrounds have conducted extensive studies on various aspects of this lake (Malu, Dhabade and Kodarkar, 2007; Babar, 2010; Maloof et al., 2010; Komatsu et al., 2014; Prasad et al., 2014; Riedel et al., 2015; Sohoni and Joshi, 2022). Moreover, the lake and its adjacent forests provide a habitat for a wide range of animals and birds, creating a still and scenic environment. Recognizing its ecological importance, the area surrounding the crater has been designated as Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary and a reserve forest area by the Government of Maharashtra state (Singh, Patil and Parshurame, 2011).

Diversifying the potential for ecotourism at Lonar Lake and officially designating the area as Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary marks a pivotal pace in fostering sustainable tourism and safeguarding the abundant biodiversity within the region (R. Chandran et al., 2022). With the formal establishment of the area as a wildlife sanctuary, there arises a golden opportunity to amplify conservation endeavors significantly. In light of this, an extensive assessment was undertaken, dealing deeply into the indigenous flora and fauna in the vicinity of the Lonar Crater.

This meticulous study was vital, encircling a comprehensive analysis of the local and native plant and animal species residing in the Lonar ecosystem. The study meticulously investigated the visible threats confronting the native floral in residence, arising from the infiltration of introduced and garden species, a critical concern at the heart of conservation endeavors. Notably, the research also highlighted a concerning trend among visitors, who often displayed a lack of awareness regarding the local flora. It was observed that visitors, unknowingly or for amusement, plucked flowers and twigs, thereby disturbing the delicate balance of the ecosystem. Additionally, the pervasive issue of plastic pollution was glaringly evident in many areas, with discarded plastic bottles and waste scattered across the vicinity, posing a significant environmental challenge (Gosavi and Phuge, 2023).

By conducting this comprehensive analysis, invaluable insights was gained into the delicate balance of the Lonar ecosystem. The findings not only illuminated the diverse range of native flora and fauna but also shed light on the challenges posed by non-native species. Armed with this knowledge, targeted conservation strategies may be devised to mitigate the impact of introduced species and protect the unique biodiversity that Lonar Lake and its surrounding area are home to. This holistic approach not only enhances our understanding of the ecosystem but also paves the way for informed conservation decisions, ensuring the preservation of this natural marvel for generations to come.

To gauge the richness of plant species, random sampling method was adopted (Diekmann, Kühne and Isermann, 2007). This method involved strategically selecting random locations within the crater area and thoroughly documenting the various plant species found there. By employing this random sampling technique, a comprehensive representation of the floral diversity within the Lonar Crater was achieved, allowing to study the distribution and abundance of native and introduced plant species in this unique habitat. Three seasons (January-March, August-September and October-December) were investigated to explore the diversity among floral and faunal species.

For the evaluation of faunal diversity, a combination of visual encounter surveys and opportunistic bird sightings was undertaken. Visual encounter surveys involved keen observations of animal species within their natural habitats, ensuring a detailed understanding of their behavior and interactions. Additionally, researchers documented bird species through opportunistic sightings, recording instances where various avian species were spotted incidentally.

The study covered various significant points around the lake, including the entry point, Gomukh Temple, Kumareshwar Temple, Lonar Waterfall, Yadneshwar Mahadev Temple, Kapila Sangam Temple, Lonar Sarovar Lower Viewpoint, Ruins of Ancient Temple, Wagh Mahadeo Temple, and Kamalja Devi Temple (Malu, Dhabade and Kodarkar, 2007), spanning a total distance of 3.2 km and then back to the Lonar Lake entry point, Figure 1. By employing these meticulous techniques, the study not only comprehensively explored the floral and faunal diversity but also provided valuable insights into the complex ecological relationships within the Lonar Crater ecosystem.

The distinguishing characteristic of the lake lies in its remarkable salinity and high alkalinity, with a pH level reaching an extraordinary 11(Malu, Dhabade and Kodarkar, 2007; Siddiqi, 2008). This unique feature is a result of the elevated concentration of salts, including sodium chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, and fluoride, primarily sourced from the influx of these salts through small streams merging into the crater. The lake exhibits an exceptionally high alkalinity, with pH levels ranging between 10.5 and 11.2 (Shinde Vinod and More, 2013; Singh and Singh, 2018), while the water from the springs is notably fresh and potable, with a nearly neutral pH of 7.2 (Babar, 2010).

Hydrologically, it's noteworthy that digging a pit within the basin, a short distance away from the saline lake, yields sweet and drinkable water. Adding to its distinctiveness, the lake is divided into two distinct parts, each with different chemical compositions. The outer region maintains a neutral pH of 7, while the inner area is highly alkaline, registering a pH of 11 (Kanekar and Kanekar, 2022). Each of these areas hosts unique flora and fauna, contributing to the lake's exceptional ecological diversity. The terrestrial vegetation encircling the lake falls within the classification of southern tropical dry deciduous forest. This forest type is characterized by a blend of deciduous and semi-evergreen components. Within this ecosystem, specific pockets of habitats have emerged as biodiversity hotspots, harboring a diverse array of wild plant and animal species.

3.1 Floral Diversity

The Lonar crater, distinguished by its salinity and high alkalinity, sustains a diverse botanical landscape. Within this unique environment, 64 native floral species, 12 naturalized species, and 8 introduced species have been identified. The availability of sweet and potable water in the basin area, as mentioned previously, plays a crucial role in supporting the survival of these plant species. Among the 86 plant species observed, 32 were classified as trees, 29 as herbs, 8 as shrubs, 12 as climbers, and 4 as grasses, underscoring the rich botanical diversity thriving within this distinctive ecological niche. The plant distribution of Lonar ecosystem is listed in Table-1.

Table 1: Plant Distribution in Lonar Ecosystem by Family and Growth Form

Plant Family	Total Observed	Trees	Herb	Shrub	Climber	Grass
Caesalpiniaceae	6	4	0	1	1	0
Asteraceae	5	0	5	0	0	0
Fabaceae	6	4	0	0	2	0
Poaceae	5	0	1	0	0	4
Acanthaceae	4	0	3	1	0	0
Euphorbiaceae	4	1	3	0	0	0
Malvaceae	4	1	3	0	0	0
Mimosaceae	5	4	1	0	0	0
Amaranthaceae	3	0	3	0	0	0
Apocynaceae	3	1	0	1	1	0
Cucurbitaceae	3	0	0	0	3	0
Moraceae	3	3	0	0	0	0
Annonaceae	2	2	0	0	0	0
Capparaceae	2	0	0	2	0	0
Combretaceae	2	2	0	0	0	0
Commelinaceae	2	0	2	0	0	0
Lamiaceae	2	0	1	1	0	0
Menispermaceae	2	0	0	0	2	0
Tiliaceae	2	1	1	0	0	0
Verbenaceae	2	1	0	1	0	0
Asparagaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Boraginaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Bruseraceae	1	0	0	1	0	0
Convolvulaceae	1	0	0	0	1	0
Dioscoreaceae	1	0	0	0	1	0
Meliaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Myrtaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Nyctaginaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Phyllanthaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Polemoniaceae	1	0	0	0	1	0
Rhamnaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Rubiaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Rutaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Santalaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Scrophulariaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Simaroubaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0
Solanaceae	1	0	1	0	0	0
Ulmaceae	1	1	0	0	0	0

The plant diversity in the Lonar Crater is characterized by a variety of families, showcasing the unique ecological tapestry of the region. Among the 38 observed plant families, several stand out for their dominance and diversity, Table- 1. Caesalpiniaceae emerges as a dominant family with six species, including four trees, one shrub, and one climber. In contrast, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae families are notable for their diverse representation in herbs, with Asteraceae contributing five herbs, Fabaceae providing three herbs, and Poaceae contributing one herb while dominating in grasses with four species.

Euphorbiaceae and Malvaceae families, each with four species, highlight the presence of a variety of shrubs. Mimosaceae, a family with ecological significance, contributes with four species, including three trees and one herb. Climbers, essential for the ecosystem's structure, are prominently represented by families like Apocynaceae, Combretaceae, and Menispermaceae. These families host species like Apocynaceae's one tree, one shrub, and one climber; Combretaceae's two trees; and Menispermaceae's two climbers. The solitary tree from Meliaceae holds significance for its medicinal properties, underscoring the ecological importance of this family.

Furthermore, families such as Caesalpiniaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae, and Rutaceae showcase the presence of trees, symbolizing the stability of the ecosystem. The presence of Solanaceae and Ulmaceae emphasizes the herbaceous and tree components, respectively, while contributing to the overall biodiversity of the Lonar Crater. Each of these families contributes uniquely to the ecosystem, creating a diverse and balanced habitat within the crater's unique environmental conditions.

3.2 Diverse Flora of Lonar Crater: Native, Naturalized, and Introduced Species Impacting the Ecosystem

The Lonar Crater area, rich in botanical diversity, showcases a wide array of plant families, each contributing significantly to the unique ecosystem within the crater, Table- 2. The observed plant families encompass a diverse range of trees, herbs, shrubs, climbers, and grasses. Among the prominent native trees are Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae), locally known as Pandhra Kuda, and Ficus religiosa (Moraceae), known as Pimpala. Notably, medicinal plants like Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae), or Adulsa, and Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae), known as Gulvel, were observed, underlining the pharmaceutical importance of the region (Bhatia et al., 2014).

The introduction of certain species, such as Coaea scandends (Polemoniaceae) and Ipomoea hederifolia (Convolvulaceae), disrupts the native ecosystem. Additionally, naturalized plants like Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) and Mimosa pudica (Mimosaceae) have become integrated, albeit not indigenous, affecting the native flora (Dogra et al., 2010; Simberloff, 2011). The dominance of families like Poaceae, represented by various grass species like Heteropogon contortus, Sehima nervosum, and Dichanthium annulatum, signifies the importance of grasslands within this environment.

Furthermore, the presence of climbers like Cocculus hirsutus (Menispermaceae) and Caesalpinia bonduc (Caesalpiniaceae) underscores the vertical diversity, playing a vital role in the structural composition of the ecosystem. Vallaris solanacea (Apocynaceae), known as Dudhi-vel, and Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Caesalpiniaceae), called Sankasur, exemplify the native climbers, while the naturalized Ipomoea hederifolia (Convolvulaceae), known as Lal pungli, indicates the intrusion of non-indigenous species.

Additionally, the herbaceous flora, comprising plants like Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae), Grewia asiatica (Tiliaceae), and Blumea lacera (Asteraceae), accentuates the ecological diversity within the Lonar Crater. These observations provide valuable insights into the dynamic interplay between native, naturalized, and introduced species, emphasizing the need for balanced conservation efforts to preserve the indigenous biodiversity of this remarkable crater.

Table- 2: List of Trees observed in the study area

Scientific Name	Family	Local Name	Biodiversity
Trees
Holarrhena pubescens	Apocynaceae	Pandhra Kuda	Native
Ficus religiosa	Moraceae	Pimpala	Native
Azadirachta indica	Meliaceae	Neem	Native
Annona squamosa	Annonaceae	Sitaphal	Introduced
Ricinus communis	Euphorbiaceae	Castor bean	Native
Vachellia nilotica	Mimosaceae	Babul	Native
Tectona grandis	Verbenaceae	Sagwan	Native
Holoptelea integrifolia	Ulmaceae	Vavala	Native
Bauhinia variegata	Caesalpiniaceae	Kovidara	Native
Morinda coreia	Rubiaceae	Indian Mulberry	Native
Santalum album	Santalaceae	Sandalwood	Native
Ziziphus mauritiana	Rhamnaceae	Ber	Native
Delonix regia	Caesalpiniaceae	Gulmohar	Naturalized
Ficus racemosa	Moraceae	Umber	Native
Pongamia pinnata	Fabaceae	Karanj	Native
Grewia asiatica	Tiliaceae	Falsa	Native
Cassia fistula	Caesalpiniaceae	Amaltas	Native
Butea monosperma	Fabaceae	Palas	Native
Ficus benghalensis	Moraceae	Banyan Tree	Native
Terminalia anogeissiana	Combretaceae	Dhawda	Native
Leucaena leucocephala	Mimosaceae	Subabul	Naturalized
Eucalyptus sps	Myrtaceae	Nilgiri	Naturalized
Hardwickia binata	Caesalpiniaceae	Anjan	Native
Ailanthus excelsa	Simaroubaceae	Marukh	Native
Dalbergia sissoo	Fabaceae	Shisham	Native
Albizia lebbeck	Mimosaceae	Siris	Native
Monoon logifolium	Annonaceae	Ashok	Native
Terminalia bellirica	Combretaceae	Behada	Native
Aegle marmelos	Rutaceae	Bel	Native
Bombax ceiba	Malvaceae	Katesawar	Native
Prosopis juliflora	Mimosaceae	Algaroba	Introduced
Gliricidia sepium	Fabaceae	Mexican liliac	Introduced
Herb
Euphorbia heterophylla	Euphorbiaceae	Wild spurge	Naturalized
Alternanthera sessilis	Amaranthaceae	Kanchari	Native
Haplanthodes verticillata	Acanthaceae	Spiny Bottle Brush	Native
Justicia concinna	Acanthaceae	Elegant Rungia	Native
Tridax procumbens	Asteraceae	ekdandi	Naturalized
Phyllanthus amarus	Phyllanthaceae	Bhiavali	Naturalized
Cyanotis fasciculata	Commelinaceae	Nilwanti	Native
Verbascum chinense	Scrophulariaceae	Kutki	Native
Trichodesma indicum	Boraginaceae	Chota Kalpa	Native
Euphorbia hirta	Euphorbiaceae	Dudhi	Naturalized
Commelina hirsuta	Commelinaceae	Hairy Dayflower	Native
Sida cordifolia	Malvaceae	Bala	Native
Pedilanthus tithymaloides	Euphorbiaceae	Devils backbone	Introduced
Alkekengi officinarum	Solanaceae	Winter cherry	Introduced
Boerhavia diffusa	Nyctaginaceae	Wineflower	Native
Cosmos bipinnatus	Asteraceae	Cosmos	Introduced
Dendrocalamus strictus	Poaceae	Bamboo	Native
Blumea lacera	Asteraceae	Bhamurda	Native
Sida acuta	Malvaceae	Chikana	Native
Celosia argentea	Amaranthaceae	Kurdu	Naturalized
Lavandula bipinnata	Lamiaceae	Deepmal	Native
Malvastrum coromandelianum	Malvaceae	Chandiri	Naturalized
Xanthium strumarium	Asteraceae	Ghagara	Native
Corchorus aestuans	Tiliaceae	Jute	Native
Achyranthes aspera	Amaranthaceae	Aghada	Native
Justicia adhatoda	Acanthaceae	Adulsa	Native
Glossocardia bosvallia	Asteraceae	Patthar Suva	Native
Ledebouria revoluta	Asparagaceae	Rankanda	Native
Mimosa pudica	Mimosaceae	Lajalu	Naturalized
Shrub
Lantana camara	Verbenaceae	Tantani	Naturalized
Calotropis procera	Apocynaceae	Mandara	Native
Barleria prionitis	Acanthaceae	Pivali koranti	Native
Capparis zeylanica	Capparaceae	Govindi	Native
Premna serratifolia	Lamiaceae	Arani	Native
Commiphora wightii	Bruseraceae	Guggala	Native
Caesalpinia pulcherrima	Caesalpiniaceae	Sankasur	Native
Capparis moonii	Capparaceae	Vaghati	Native
Climber
Coaea scandends	Polemoniaceae	Cup and Saucer Vine	Introduced
Cocculus hirsutus	Menispermaceae	Vasanvel	Native
Coccinia grandis	Cucurbitaceae	Ivy Gourd	Native
Trichosanthes cucumerina subsp. Cucumerina	Cucurbitaceae	Padol	Native
Cucurbita moschata	Cucurbitaceae	Kala bhopala	Introduced
Dioscorea bulbifera	Dioscoreaceae	Kadu-Karanda	Native
Ipomoea hederifolia	Convolvulaceae	Lal pungli	Naturalized
Vigna indica	Fabaceae	Indian Bean	Native
Abrus precatorius	Fabaceae	Gunja	Native
Vallaris solanacea	Apocynaceae	Dudhi-vel	Native
Tinospora cordifolia	Menispermaceae	Gulvel	Native
Caesalpinia bonduc	Caesalpiniaceae	sagargota	Native
Grass
Apluda mutica	Poaceae	Mauritian Grass	Native
Heteropogon contortus	Poaceae	Kusali	Native
Sehima nervosum	Poaceae	Rat-Tail Grass	Native
Dichanthium annulatum	Poaceae	Marvel Grass	Native

The forest vegetation around Lonar Lake's alluvial plain is primarily Prosopis juliflora (Riedel et al., 2015). It comprises an inner lakeside area (10% of crater vegetation) with only Prosopis juliflora and an outer part (15% of crater vegetation) called Alluvial Forest. The outer part is dominated by dry-tolerant Azadirachta indica and non-native Prosopis juliflora (Ahmed, 1991), yet contains moisture-demanding species like Morinda pubescens and bamboos, indicating a wetter character. A small eastern portion features non-native Delonix regia and native species. Dry deciduous mixed forest (40% of crater vegetation) on slopes has a savannah-like character with Tectona grandis, Azadirachta indica, and others (Prasad et al., 2014). A distinct patch of non-native Gliricidia sepium is found on the southern rocky slope. Steep faces above the upper treeline feature open thorny shrub vegetation (30% of crater vegetation) with Vachelia spp., Annona squamosa, and others. The northeastern alluvial terrace is intensively used for agriculture (Riedel et al., 2015). Reed vegetation, primarily Cyperaceae and Typha angustata, occurs near tributary outlets in front of the plantation.

In the late 1980s, a reforestation initiative was launched (Diwakar and Ansari, 1995), resulting in trees, especially in the dry deciduous mixed forest, being predominantly of the same age. The region now experiences a prevalence of non-native and often invasive woody species such as Prosopis juliflora, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, and Lantana camara. Notably, Prosopis, initially planted for soil erosion control, now extensively covers parts of the crater, gradually displacing native vegetation. Other disturbances to the crater ecosystem arise from agricultural activities, wood collection for fuel, and grazing by cattle and goats. Beyond the Lonar crater, the landscape is significantly influenced by human activities, with agriculture and thorn shrubs dominating the surrounding areas.

3.3 Impact of Introduced Plants on Lonar Crater Ecosystem: Disruption of Ecological Balance and Native Flora Displacement

The proliferation of introduced plant species, exemplified by Cosmos bipinnatus, has been noticeably observed within the Lonar Crater region, similarly the other plants such as Prosopis juliflora, Annona squamosa etc. These plants have rapidly spread, extending their presence from the Lonar entry gate up to the Gomukh temple. This uncontrolled expansion has resulted in a disruption of the ecological balance within the area.

One concerning aspect is the establishment of a garden area near the entry gate, where invasive species are intentionally planted for beautification. While the intention behind this initiative may be aesthetic enhancement, the unintended consequence has been the displacement of native floral species. The aggressive growth of these introduced plants has outcompeted the local flora, leading to a reduction in the diversity and abundance of native plant species in the affected areas.

The unchecked spread of introduced plants not only alters the natural landscape but also poses a threat to the delicate balance of the ecosystem. It jeopardizes the habitats of native plants, disrupts the foraging patterns of local fauna, and can lead to a decline in overall biodiversity. Furthermore, these invasive species often require substantial resources, such as water and nutrients, which may negatively impact the availability of these resources for native plants, exacerbating the ecological imbalance.

3.4 Faunal Diversity

3.4.1 Birds

The Lonar Crater, nestled amidst the picturesque landscape, serves as a haven for a diverse array of bird species (Palot, 2007). Within this unique ecosystem, encompassing both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, numerous avian wonders have been observed. The tranquil waters of Lonar Crater provide a habitat for waterfowl such as Little Grebes and Coots, gracefully gliding on the surface. The marshy edges are frequented by elegant waders like Redwattled Lapwings and Pond Herons, exhibiting their splendid plumage. Above, in the surrounding woodlands, the melodious calls of songbirds like Black Drongos and Tailor Birds resonate through the air. The presence of raptors, such as the majestic Marsh Harriers and Shikras, highlights the area's biodiversity. In the lush foliage, the vibrant hues of the Indian Peacock and the Golden Oriole add a touch of brilliance to the green canopy. The list of bird species observed is listed in Table-3. The Lonar Crater thus stands as a testament to the harmonious coexistence of various bird species, creating a vibrant and thriving ecosystem where the avian residents find both refuge and sustenance.

Table -3: List of Birds observed during the study

Common Name	Scientific Name	IUCN Status
Liittle Grebe	Podiceps ruficollis	Least Concern
Grey Wagtail	Motacilla cinerea	Least Concern
Redwattled Lapwing	Vanellus indicus	Least Concern
Whitenecked Stork	Ciconia episcopus	Near Threatened
Coot	Fulica atra	Least Concern
Pond Heron	Ardeola grayii	Least Concern
Indian Moorhen	Gallinula chloropus	Least Concern
little Egret	Egretta garzetta	Least Concern
Greatr Flamingo	Phoenicopterus roseus	Least Concern
Sandpipers	Tringa hypoleucos	Least Concern
Spotbill Duck	Anas poecilorhyncha	Least Concern
Great Reed Warbler	Acrocephalus stentozes	Least Concern
Black-winged Kite	Elanus cuencleus	Least Concern
Black Drongo	Dicrurus adsimilis	Least Concern
Small Green Bee-eater	Merops orientalis	Least Concern
Rufousbacked Shrike	Lanius schach	Least Concern
Ashy prinia	Prinia Socialis	Least Concern
Tailor Bird	Orthotomus sutorius	Least Concern
Whitespotted Fantailed	Rhipidura albicollis	Least Concern
Fan-tail Flycatcher	Rhpidura sp.	Least Concern
Indian Peacock	Pavo cristatus	Least Concern
Large Grey Babbler	Turdoides malcolmi	Least Concern
Yelloweyed Babbler	Chrysomma sinnense	Least Concern
Magpie Robin	Copsychus saularis	Least Concern
Jungle Crow	Corvus macrorhynchos	Least Concern
Grey Tit	Parus major	Least Concern
Iora	Aegithina tiphia	Least Concern
Golden Oriole	Oriolus oriolus	Least Concern
Crow Pheasant/Coucal	Centropus sinensis	Least Concern
Barn Owl	Tyto alba	Least Concern
Grey Hornbill	Tockus birostris	Least Concern
Brahminy Duck	Tadorna ferruginea	Least Concern
Roseringed parakeet	Psittacula krameri	Least Concern
Baya Weaver bird	Ploceus philippinus	Least Concern
Chrimaonbrested Barber	Psilopogon haemacephalus	Least Concern
Indian Koel	Eudynamys scolopacea	Least Concern
Marsh Harrier	Cicus aeruginosus	Least Concern
Shikra	Accipiter badius	Least Concern
Bush Quail	Perdicula argoondah	Least Concern

3.4.2 Mammals

The observation of mammals within the Lonar Crater provides valuable insights into their adaptive behaviors in response to the unique environmental challenges of this ecosystem (MAHABAL, VYAWAHARE and PATIL, 2008). The Table-4 depicts the list of mammals observed during study period. The Musk-shrew (Suncus murinus) and the Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) adeptly navigate the undergrowth, showcasing their agility in terrestrial habitats. The Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis) demonstrates effective camouflage strategies, utilizing its dark fur for concealment during crepuscular activities. In contrast, the Indian Langur (Presbytis entellus) exhibits remarkable adaptability, showcasing both arboreal prowess and an intriguing behavior: drinking water from the crater's peripherial area. This behavior raises intriguing questions about the ecological dynamics of Lonar Crater. The phenomenon suggests two possibilities: either the peripheral water of the crater has attained a neutral pH level, making it suitable for consumption, or the Indian Langurs have undergone an adaptive change, allowing them to tolerate the unique chemical composition of the crater water. This observation highlights the fascinating interplay between environmental factors and animal behavior, underscoring the need for further scientific investigation into the evolving dynamics of Lonar Crater's ecosystem.

Table- 4: List of Observed Mammals during the study period.

Common Name	Scientific Name	IUCN status
Musk-shrew	Suncus murinus	Least Concern
Palm Squirrel	Funambulus palmarum	Least Concern
Black-naped Hare	Lepus nigricollis	Least Concern
Indian Langoor	Presbytis entellus	Least Concern
Fruit Bat	Rousettus leschenaulti	Near Threatened
Indian False Vampire	Megaderma lyra	Least Concern
Barking Deer	Muntiacus muntjak	Least Concern
Mongoose	Herpestes edwardsi	Least Concern

3.4.3 Reptiles

These reptiles contribute significantly to Lonar Crater's ecosystem dynamics, Table-5. The Monitor Lizard, as a top predator, plays a crucial role in controlling populations of smaller animals, maintaining ecological balance. The Geckoes and Skinks, through their insectivorous diets, help in controlling insect populations, thereby indirectly contributing to the overall health of the ecosystem. Observing these reptiles in Lonar Crater highlights the area's ecological richness and underscores the importance of preserving this unique habitat to sustain its diverse reptilian fauna.

Table- 5: List of Reptiles observed during the study

Common Name	Scientific Name	IUCN status
Monitor Lizard	Varanus bengalensis	Near Threatened
Geckoes	Hemidactylus triedrus	Least Concern
Keeled Indian Mabuya	Eutropis carinata	Least Concern

Soil analysis near the Lonar crater reveals distinctive characteristics, including elevated clay (49%) and silt (41%) content, influencing soil texture (Tandale and Dabhade, 2014; Dabhade, 2015). Higher gravitational acceleration (G) values hint at potential heavy metal presence. Lonar Lake water chemistry shows increased pH, sodium (Na), and chloride, indicating salinity. Iron (Fe) minerals contribute to higher electrical conductivity (Hagerty and Newsom, 2003), while a water holding capacity of 61-70% and porosity around 61% are observed.

Lonar soil, classified with low organic carbon (0.25-0.63%), poses fertility challenges. However, acceptable nitrogen levels and good phosphorus content suggest a favorable environment for plant growth. Despite low organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus potential for cultivation, appropriate soil amendments and management can enhance productivity. Further research is needed for sustainable land use in the Lonar region.

Lonar crater's unique soil shapes a diverse ecosystem, fostering growth, benefiting from the soil's water retention and suitable pH. The plants thrive, flourish in the nutrient-rich Lonar soil, supported by ideal porosity and also benefiting from the soil's water holding capacity and porosity. Woody species find stability in the clay and silt-rich soil, tapping into nutrient reservoirs. The soil's influence extends to the development of a dry deciduous forest, with characteristics like water retention and nutrient content playing a crucial role. Lonar soil, with its distinct properties, contributes to a resilient ecosystem, showcasing a rich variety of plant life.

Pilgrims were observed bathing and washing in the Dhar stream thereby generating effluents which gets discharge in the lake(Malu, Dhabade and Kodarkar, 2007; Hippalgaonkar, 2016; Gosavi and Phuge, 2023). During the survey period it was observed that some plants were cut down to clear the path for walking to reach the temples around the lake. Extensive grazing due to agricultural activity was also observed. The impact of introduced plants on native flora underscores the importance of implementing effective management strategies to control their proliferation. Conservation efforts, including monitoring, eradication programs, and public awareness initiatives, are vital to safeguarding the unique biodiversity of the Lonar Crater and restoring the natural balance within this delicate ecosystem. Nearly 52 acres of land at the base of the crater ravine is under agriculture. Where the farmers are using fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc. because of which the unique microflora of the lake is being affected.

The Lonar Crater and its surrounding ecosystem stand as a remarkable example of Earth's natural wonders. This study has unveiled the intricate tapestry of plant and animal life within the Lonar ecosystem, showcasing its rich biodiversity. However, the region faces critical threats, primarily from invasive plant species, human activities like deforestation and pollution, and agricultural encroachment. Addressing these challenges is paramount for the preservation of this unique habitat. Conservation initiatives, including rigorous monitoring, eradication programs for invasive species, stringent waste management, and community awareness, are imperative. Additionally, sustainable agricultural practices need to be promoted to prevent further degradation of the ecosystem. Through these concerted efforts, Lonar Crater can continue to thrive as a sanctuary of biodiversity, ensuring its legacy for future generations.

Acknowledgement:

The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Science and Technology for their keen interest. Additionally, we extend our thanks to every individual who contributed to the ecological and biodiversity survey. Special appreciation is also directed towards the Lonar Lake Forest Department.

Ethics Declaration:

This research project has been conducted ethically keeping integrity, transparency and reliability of scientific research.

Funding Declaration:

The project did not receive any funding.

Data Availability:

Not applicable.

Competing interest:

The authors declare no competing interest.

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No competing interests reported.

The Ecological Tapestry of Lonar Crater: Biodiversity, Conservation Challenges, and Preservation Strategies of the Ecosystem

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Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Methods

3. Results and Discussion

4. Soil near the Crater

5. Human activities and their impacts on the Lake

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1