Feldspathic sandstone as an emerging soil stabilizer for aeolian sand in the Mu Us Sandy Land: insights into particle size composition

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3892740/v1

Stabilization of aeolian sand is essential for achieving desertification control, soil and water conservation, and agricultural development in sandy lands. Feldspathic sandstone is a soft clay rock widely found in the Mu Us Sandy Land. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the mechanism for aeolian sand stabilization with feldspathic sandstone from the perspective of particle size composition. Feldspathic sandstone was added to aeolian sand at different ratios (m_f : m_s = 1:0, 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, and 0:1, where m_f is the mass of feldspathic sandstone and m_s is the mass of aeolian sand). The results showed that the soil texture was modified upon addition of feldspathic sandstone. The content of particles < 0.05 mm increased with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone, in contrast to the downward trend observed for particles > 0.05 mm. Consequently, the soil texture changed from sand to sandy loam, then loam, and finally silty loam. The addition of feldspathic sandstone ameliorated aeolian sand, resulting in a broader particle size distribution and lower particle size uniformity. Continuously well-graded soil was obtained at m_f : m_s = 1:5 (coefficient of uniformity: 54.71; coefficient of curvature: 2.54) or 1:2 (coefficient of uniformity: 76.21; coefficient of curvature: 1.12). While the addition of feldspathic sandstone solved the problem of single particle size composition in aeolian sand, the presence of aeolian sand prevented soil compaction caused by the high clay content of feldspathic sandstone. Findings of this study indicate that the addition of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand leads to the mixing of various sized particles and continuous gradation of the soil. Although a higher addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone is more favorable for soil texture improvement, m_f : m_s = 1:5 is recommended for practical application in terms of particle gradation and cost effectiveness.

Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences/Environmental impact

Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology

Desertification is a crucial and difficult problem in global ecology, arising from human activities and climate change. The causes that lead to desertification mainly include inappropriate land use (e.g., deforestation, unforeseen reclamation, overgrazing) and the loss of land productivity due to agricultural land occupation by mobile sand dunes¹. Currently, desertified soils are spreading globally at an annual rate of 5×10⁴–7×10⁴ km², with more than 1 billion people and 40% of the Earth's land surface impacted by desertification. Desertified lands are mainly concentrated in arid and semi-arid areas².

The Mu Us Sandy Land is a typical synclinal sedimentary desert zone with a total area of 4.22×10⁴km², which epitomizes the many desertified lands in the world³. It is located in the border triangle of Yikezhao League in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Yulin City in Shaanxi Province, and Yanchi County in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China. In this region, the land suffers from heavy desertification due to wind erosion, with infertile soil and scarce water resources in a vulnerable ecological environment. This Mu Us Sandy Land is one of the most seriously desertified areas in northern China and a major source of sandstorms in the Beijing–Tianjin region. As early as 1934, Cheng (1934) published an article—Desert expansion in northern China, which described the desertification process on the southern edge of the Mu Us Sandy Land and highlighted the fact of continuous desert expansion⁴. This issue has also been documented in recent years⁵. Importantly, the Mu Us Sandy Land is one of the most solar-rich areas in China and a high-quality production area for potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). Therefore, the consolidation and development of desertified lands exemplified by the Mu Us Sandy Land is of double significance to the regional environment and agriculture.

Desertification can be combated through afforestation by aerial sowing^6–7, setting apart sand areas for tree and grass growing⁸, and restoration with ecological water conservancy^9–11. However, these traditional soil and water conservation strategies are costly and need to be implemented for at least decades. As aeolian sand is most deficient in clay, its uniform and loose texture hinders the formation of a stable soil structure. Hence, aeolian sand is prone to water leakage, nutrient loss, and soil erosion, resulting in land infertility and barrenness. Strategies for the amelioration of aeolian sand often involve the addition of clay or organic amendment. In particular, the role of clay as a root inducer in stabilizing aeolian sand has received global attention^12–13. While the available methods of sandy soil improvement are disadvantageous in the transportation of materials from the source region, the cost of large-scale desertification control projects can be saved by using local materials in the desertified land.

Feldspathic sandstone is a soft clay rock distributed over a large area (~ 1.67×10⁴ km²) in the Mu Us Sandy Land. It consists of thick sandstone interbedded by sandy shale and argillaceous sandstone, with low diagenetic degree, high weathering potential, and weak intergranular cementation. This rock is hard as stone without water and soft as mud in contact with water¹⁴. It is the main source of coarse sand in the Yellow River, known as “Earth’s ecological cancer”. Despite being an object of land governance, feldspathic sandstone resources have not yet been exploited and utilized. Based on the knowledge of soil erosion mechanisms and the practice of sandy land governance, the occurrence of soil erosion is in close association with the particle size composition of surface soil^15–20. As feldspathic sandstone and aeolian sand are respectively compacted and loose in texture, the use of feldspathic sandstone as a sandy soil stabilizer is expected to reverse the traditional idea of controlling desertification to promoting soil formation. Previous studies have demonstrated improvements in the water retention capacity, nutrient conditions, and crop yields of aeolian sand stabilized with feldspathic sandstone^21–27. Presently, the mechanism driving the improvement of aeolian sand with feldspathic sandstone has not been reported from a particle size composition perspective.

In this study, we analyzed the changes of particle size composition and the patterns of particle size distribution in aeolian sand after mixing with feldspathic sandstone at various ratios. Particle size was used as an indicator to unravel the mechanisms of aeolian sand stabilization with feldspathic sandstone and explore the farmland consolidation model for eco-environmental conservation based on the trinity of quantity, quality, and ecology. The results of this study could be useful to compensate for the poor texture of aeolian sand and support the application of feldspathic sandstone in water conservation, soil erosion control, and agricultural development in sandy lands.

Study area. In 2012, we initiated the engineering construction and established an experimental field at the sandy land consolidation project site in Dajihan Village, Xiaogihan Township, Yulin District, Yulin City, northern Shaanxi Province. The study area (109°28′58″–109°30′10″ E, 38°27′53″–38°28′23″ N; Fig. 1) is located on the southern edge of the Mu Us Sandy Land and in the middle reaches of the Wuding River basin, with an elevation of 1206–1215 m. This area belongs to a typical mid-temperate semi-arid continental monsoon climate zonecharacterized by four distinct seasons. It has a long winter and a short summer, with a windy and dry spring and a cool and humid autumn.

The mean annual temperature of the study area is 8.1°C and its ≥ 10°C cumulative temperature is 3307.5°C. The lasting days of ≥ 10°C cumulative temperature and mean annual frost-free period are 168 and 154 d, respectively. The annual precipitation varies from 250 to 440 mm (mean: 413.9 mm), and 60.9% of the precipitation is concentrated in July–September with rainy and hot weather. The extreme annual precipitation has a maximum of 695.4 mm and a minimum of 159.6 mm, and the maximum daily precipitation reaches 141.7 mm. The mean annual sunshine duration is 2879 h and the percentage of sunshine is 65% per year. The total annual radiation is 606.94 KJ/cm² and the dryness is between 1.0–2.5. Sand-driving wind with speeds > 5 m/s occurs 220–580 times per year, and sand dunes are < 10 m in height²⁸.

Experimental design and setup. The experiment was carried out using an orthogonal design. We adopted an engineering approach (Fig. 2) for soil stabilization and plot construction with five different ratios of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand (m_f : m_s = 1:0, 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, and 0:1, where m_f is the mass of feldspathic sandstone and m_s is the mass of aeolian sand). Each treatment was applied to one experimental plot (20 m long × 7 m wide) with three replications, and a total of 15 plots were set up.

From early April 2013, potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Longshu-7) was grown in the experimental field with a row spacing of 70 cm, a plant spacing of 25 cm, and one cropping season per year. Potato yield of the 10th season was estimated after harvest at the end of September 2023. At the time of harvest, surface soil samples (0–20 cm depth) were collected from five random points in each plot. The soil samples were air-dried, ground, and sieved through a 2-mm mesh before the analysis of particle size and the determination of physicochemical and mechanical properties.

To verify the soil improvement after stabilization, we randomly collected five loessial soil samples (0–20 cm depth) in potato field adjacent to the project site based on the soil type map of China from the second national soil census (2023). The physicochemical and mechanical properties of loessial soil samples were analyzed and compared with the properties of stabilized soil samples.

Sample analysis. Soil particle size composition was analyzed using a Malvern laser diffraction particle size analyzer (Mastersizer 3000; Malvern Instruments Ltd., Worcesteshire, UK) by wet sieving. Particle size ranges were classified according to the Chinese particle size classification system²⁹, and the granulometric composition was determined based on the soil texture triangle developed by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA)²⁹.

Water-stable aggregates were determined using the wet-sieving technique³⁰. Capillary porosity was calculated from soil water content (measured by oven drying at 105°C for 12 h) and bulk density (measured using a 100-cm³ cutting ring)²⁹. The determination of organic matter content and cation exchange capacity was based on oil bath heating–K₂Cr₂O₇ volumetric method and ammonium acetate extraction–Kjeldahl distillation method, respectively²⁹. Field capacity measurements were conducted using a 100-cm³ cutting ring³¹. A hydraulic conductivity meter was used to measure saturated hydraulic conductivity, the oven-drying method was employed to determine effective water content, and a triaxial apparatus was used to measure the cohesion of particles and the angle of internal friction²⁹.

Data analysis. To evaluate soil gradation, the coefficient of uniformity (C_u) and the coefficient of curvature (C_c) were calculated³². C_u measures the uniformity of soil particles (C_u = d₆₀ / d₁₀, where d_i are the particle size corresponding to the cumulative mass fraction of i%). In principle, C_u is greater than 1 and a value closer to 1 indicates that the soil sample is more uniform; a soil with C_u < 5 is considered uniform and poorly graded. The greater the C_u value, the broader the particle size distribution; a soil with C_u > 10 is considered well graded. However, if the C_u value is too large (generally > 100, with difference in the order of magnitude), it means intermediate particle sizes may be absent, and the soil is gap graded. This necessitates the use of C_c, which describes slope continuity in the cumulative particle gradation curve (C_c = d₃₀ × d₃₀ / (d₆₀ × d₁₀)), to evaluate soil gradation characteristics.

The experimental data are presented as means ± standard deviation (n = 5). SigmaPlot v13 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) was used for graph construction. SPSS Statistics v18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) was used for one-way analysis of variance followed by the Duncan’s new multiple range test. A P-value of less than 0.05 was considered to indicate statistical significance.

Soil textural characteristics. The distribution of particles across different size ranges in soil samples with various ratios of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand is shown in Fig. 3. In the feldspathic sandstone (m_f : m_s = 1:0), coarse silt (0.01–0.05 mm) accounted for the highest proportion (by mass), followed by fine silt (0.002–0.005 mm) and medium silt (0.01–0.005 mm) in comparable proportions. The feldspathic sandstone had relatively low contents of coarse clay (0.001–0.002 mm) and fine clay (< 0.001 mm), with almost no particles > 0.25 mm. In the aeolian sand (m_f : m_s = 0:1), coarse sand (0.25–1 mm) was the most abundant fraction, followed by fine sand (0.05–0.25 mm). The aeolian sand had low silt content (0.05–0.002 mm, 4.05%) and almost no clay content (< 0.002 mm, < 1%).

In the stabilized soils containing both feldspathic sandstone and aeolian sand (m_f : m_s = 1:1, 1:2, and 1:5), coarse sand (0.25–1 mm) comprised the largest proportion, followed by fine sand (0.05–0.25 mm) and coarse silt (0.0–0.05 mm). Taking the particle size of 0.05 mm as a boundary (which divides sand and silt fractions in the USDA soil texture), the content of particles with a size < 0.05 mm in the stabilized soils exhibited a upward trend with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone (m_f : m_s = 1:0 > 1:1 > 1:2 > 1:5 > 0:1), whereas the opposite pattern was observed for the content of particles with a size > 0.05 mm (m_f : m_s = 1:0 < 1:1 < 1:2 < 1:5 < 0:1). This result was attributable to the notably high proportions of > 0.05 mm particles in the aeolian sand and < 0.05 mm particles in the feldspathic sandstone (Fig. 3).

Table 1 provides the granulometric composition and texture of various soil samples according to the USDA textural soil classification system. With increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone, the content of key particle size fractions (silt and clay) for soil structure formation increased in a linear pattern. The relation between feldspathic sandstone and silt contents can be expressed as: y = 69.04x + 10.41, R² = 0.9630; the relation between feldspathic sandstone and clay contents can be expressed as: y = 13.37x + 2.42, R² = 0.8873 (where y is the mass fraction of soil particles, %; and x is the mass fraction of feldspathic sandstone, %). The soil texture also transitioned with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone (sand–sandy loam–loam–silty loam). This indicates the soil was improved in texture and showed certain structural properties. The addition of feldspathic sandstone modified the coarse sandy texture of aeolian sand, offering the possibility of soil stabilization from a texture perspective.

Table 1

Granulometric composition and texture of soil samples with various ratios of feldspathic sandstone (m_f) to aeolian sand (m_s).
Mass ratio (m_f : m_s)	Soil granulometric composition (%)			Soil texture
Mass ratio (m_f : m_s)	Sand (2–0.05 mm)	Silt (0.05–0.002 mm)	Clay (< 0.002 mm)	Soil texture
1:0	10.43	75.31	14.26	Silty loam
1:1	39.57	49.38	11.05	Loam
1:2	52.74	38.88	8.38	Sandy loam
1:5	72.55	22.53	4.92	Sandy loam
0:1	95.73	4.05	0.21	Sand

Soil gradation characteristics. The cumulative and frequency distributions of particle size composition in various soil samples are shown in Fig. 4. The feldspathic sandstone (m_f : m_s = 1:0) had a broad particle size distribution, with no distinct peak in the frequency distribution curve. Its cumulative particle size distribution curve also showed no steep slope, representing a polydisperse curve. These results are indicative of low particle size uniformity in the feldspathic sandstone with no dominant particle size fractions. The aeolian sand was overall coarse-grained, with particle sizes mainly ranging from 0.05 to 1 mm and showing a narrow peak in the frequency distribution curve. Its cumulative particle size distribution curve also showed a steep slope, representing a monodisperse curve. These results reflect that the aeolian sand had high particle size uniformity and good sorting property.

As for the stabilized soils with feldspathic sandstone and aeolian sand mixed at three different ratios (m_f : m_s = 1:1, 1:2, and 1:5), their frequency particle size distribution curves were divided into two portions by the particle size of 0.05 mm (Fig. 4). The content of relatively fine particles < 0.05 mm increased with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone, where as the content of relatively coarse particles > 0.05 mm exhibited the opposite trend. The cumulative particle size distribution curves all showed clear trend turning, which typifies polydisperse curves. However, with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone, the cumulative particle size distribution curves showed greater difference compared with the monodisperse curve of aeolian sand and shifted towards the polydisperse curve of feldspathic sandstone. This means that the uniform particle size composition of aeolian sand was improved upon addition of feldspathic sandstone. The particle size composition of stabilized soils showed the mixing of coarse and fine particles with broadened distribution of particle sizes.

The particle gradation parameters of soil samples with various ratios of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand (Table 2) were obtained based on data from laser diffraction analysis and Fig. 4. With increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone, the volume average particle sizes of soils, as well as the particle sizes corresponding to various cumulative mass fractions, exhibited a downward trend. This means that the coarse-grained condition of aeolian sand was improved by adding feldspathic sandstone, and the soil particle size composition was changed in a finer direction. Based on the d_i values of feldspathic sandstone (Table 2), the particle sizes were relatively fine and mainly concentrated in the silt and clay fractions. The feldspathic sandstone had C_u value of 12.07 and C_c value of 1.01. Evidence suggests that when the two conditions C_u > 10 and C_c = 1–3 are satisfied simultaneously, the samples are well graded soils³³. In summary, the feldspathic sandstone had a broad particle size distribution and continuous gradation, making it possible to serve as a soil stabilizer for aeolian sand.

Based on the d_i values of aeolian sand (Table 2), the particle sizes were relatively coarse and mainly concentrated in the sand fraction. The aeolian sand had C_u value of 3.32 and C_c value of 1.21. Accordingly, the aeolian sand had continuous gradation with a narrow particle size distribution, and the soil was uniformly graded or poorly graded, consistent with the results presented in Fig. 4. As the aeolian sand lacked excellent mechanical properties, its engineering properties were generally poor. Therefore, despite its continuous particle gradation, the aeolian sand had a too low C_u value, a narrow particle size distribution, and lack of particles in the small size fractions, so it was classified as poorly graded soil.

Based on calculations, the C_u and C_c values of stabilized soils were respectively 76.21 and 1.12 at m_f : m_s = 1:2, and 54.71 and 2.54 at m_f : m_s = 1:5. In both cases, the C_u values were greater than 10 and the C_c values ranged between 1–3. Therefore, the two stabilized soils showed good particle gradation at m_f : m_s = 1:2 or 1:5. Such soil samples had mixed composition of coarse and fine particles³⁴. Furthermore, the stabilized soils had much larger C_u values than feldspathic sandstone and aeolian sand (Table 2). This provides evidence that the addition of feldspathic sandstone resolved the textural defect of aeolian sand in terms of particle size uniformity, leading to superior particle size composition and soil gradation.

Table 2. Coefficient of uniformity (C_u) and coefficient of curvature (C_c) for soil samples with various ratios of feldspathic sandstone (m_f) to aeolian sand (m_s)

Mass ratio (m_f : m_s)	Volume average particle size (mm)	d_i (mm)			C_u	C_c
Mass ratio (m_f : m_s)	Volume average particle size (mm)	d₁₀	d₃₀	d₆₀	C_u	C_c
1:0	0.022	0.0014	0.0049	0.0169	12.0714	1.0148
1:1	0.133	0.0023	0.0096	0.0528	23.0568	0.7622
1:2	0.195	0.0029	0.0268	0.2210	76.2069	1.1207
1:5	0.267	0.0068	0.0801	0.3720	54.7059	2.5364
0:1	0.345	0.1125	0.2250	0.3729	3.3156	1.2071
Note: d_i is the particle size corresponding to the cumulative mass fraction of i%.

Soil physicochemical and mechanical properties. Considering the changes in soil particle size composition after adding feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand, we selected m_f : m_s = 1:5 to verify the improvements in soil physicochemical and mechanical properties and crop yield (Table 3). The addition of feldspathic sandstone changed the soil texture from sand to sandy loam after 10 seasons of potato cropping. Compared with the sandy soil, the stabilized soil showed superior properties (e.g., texture, water-stable aggregates, organic matter content, cation exchange capacity) close to those of loessial soil. The potato yield of stabilized soil more than doubled that of sandy soil and reached a similar level to that of loessial soil. This indicates that following the addition of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand, the major soil properties and crop yield were comparable to those of loessial soil with a light loamy texture.

Table 3

Comparison of soil properties and crop yield..
Soil property	Sandy soil	Stabilized soil (m_f : m_s = 1:5)	Loessial soil (reference soil)
Texture	Sand	Sandy loam	Light loam
≥ 0.25 mm water-stable aggregates (%)	Single particles	20.8–29.3	22.9
Capillary porosity (%)	5.95	28.8–42.2	55.0
Organic matter (%)	0.09	0.9–1.0	1.0
Cation exchange capacity (cmol/kg)	3.5	5.0–6.5	6.1
Field capacity (%_V)	7	17–38	24
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/min)	3.41	0.49–1.61	0.93
Effective water content (%_V)	2	13–31	16
Cohesion of particles (Kpa)	0	13–18	30
Angle of internal friction (°)	30–35	22–33	20
Potato yield (kg/km²)	0.34	0.79	0.81

The soil particle size characteristics of different land-use types in the Mu Us Sandy Land have been reported^35–37. Here, we verified the effects of adding feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand for soil stabilization in this sandy land from a new angle—particle size composition. The results could provide guidance on sandy land consolidation, which has implications for farmland improvement and environmental protection.

In the study area, the aeolian sand showed coarse particle sizes mainly concentrated in the sand fraction. The volume average particle size of aeolian sand obtained in this study is similar to that reported by Li et al.³⁸. We conducted a detailed analysis of soil particle size composition after mixing feldspathic sandstone with aeolian sand at different ratios. Based on the characteristics of particle size composition and the measures of soil gradation (C_u and C_c), the addition of feldspathic sandstone solved the problem of aeolian sand with coarse particle sizes. A higher addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone led to decrease in the sand content and increase in the silt and clay contents of the soil. This means that the particle size composition changed from a single size range to multiple size ranges, and the soil texture became finer (sand–sandy loam–loam–silty loam). Moreover, the addition of feldspathic sandstone compensated for the limitation of aeolian sand with strong particle sorting ability, and ameliorated the poor particle gradation and uniform soil texture of sandy soil.

The changes we observed in soil particle size composition are attributable to the abundance of silt and clay in feldspathic sandstone¹⁴. When feldspathic sandstone is added to aeolian sand, it could effectively prevent the penetration of water through the sand and negatively impact infiltration in deep soil, thereby enhancing the water retention capacity³⁹. The soil texture varies from sand to loam with increasing content of feldspathic sandstone. This textural variation could meet the needs of crop root aeration, as well as improve soil water conditions and achieve nutrient retention⁴⁰. In terms of environmental protection, the use of feldspathic sandstone as a soil stabilizer is useful to accelerate the restoration of local vegetation^41–42, and as such, enhance soil resistance to wind and water erosion. With regard to agricultural production, the addition of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand can improve soil fertility and facilitate nutrient uptake by crop plants, leading to increase in the yield of maize⁴³ and potato (this study). Overall, the changes in soil particle size composition demonstrate the potential of feldspathic sandstone as a soil stabilizer for aeolian sand.

While feldspathic sandstone plays a role in improving the texture of sandy soil, aeolian sand ameliorates soil compaction caused by the high clay content of feldspathic sandstone⁴⁴. Specifically, soil clay content decreases upon addition of aeolian sand to feldspathic sandstone, and a higher addition ratio (m_s : m_f) results in lower clay content, which reduces the possibility of soil compaction. Therefore, feldspathic sandstone and aeolian sand can make up for each other’s limitation in soil formation and improve the particle size composition. The addition of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand successfully reverses desertification into soil formation and considerably accelerates the slow process of soil formation—which usually takes 500 years to form a 1-cm thick soil. In this regard, it is of great significance to adopt this technique for the sustainable governance of the Mu Us Sandy Land. In addition to realizing sandy soil stabilization, this technique can increase the quantity and improve the quality of farmland.

The proposed soil stabilization technique showed the greatest effect on soil particle size composition at m_f : m_s = 1:2 or 1:5. Taking into account the convenience of material transport and the cost of engineering projects, m_f : m_s = 1:5 is recommended for practical application in large-scale sandy land consolidation. The improvements in soil properties and potato yield at m_f : m_s = 1:5 were verified by comparison with loessial soil. Figure 5 shows the distinct landscapes before and after application of the proposed technique at the land consolidation project site in an aeolian sand area along the Great Wall in northern Shaanxi Province. While this study only looked at particle size composition, further research is needed to verify whether the recommended addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone is still optimal in terms of soil nutrients and other properties.

This study verified the effect of using feldspathic sandstone to stabilize aeolian sand in the Mu Us Sandy Land. With regard to particle size, the abundance of clay in feldspathic sandstone effectively compensated for the single particle size composition of sandy soil, making it possible to serve as a new soil stabilizer for aeolian sand. The soil texture changed from sand to loam with increasing addition ratio of feldspathic sandstone. Good particle gradation was observed with the ratio of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand at 1:2 or 1:5. However, it is necessary to ascertain whether the soil is well graded with the ratio of feldspathic sandstone to aeolian sand between 1:2 and 1:5.

Author contributions

L.Z.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. J.H.: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing – review & editing. J.L.: Data curation. S.Y.: Formal analysis, Data curation. D.W.: Formal analysis.

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Acknowledgements

“This research was supported by Technology Innovation Center for Land Engineering and Human Settlements, Shaanxi Land Engineering Construction Group Co., Ltd and Xi'an Jiaotong University (2024WHZ0091), and Shaanxi Provincial Innovative Talent Promotion Plan-Youth Science and Technology New Star Project (2021KJXX-88). The authors gratefully acknowledge researchers at the Shaanxi Provincial Land Engineering Construction Group for assistance with the field experiment.”

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No competing interests reported.

Rawdata.jnb

Feldspathic sandstone as an emerging soil stabilizer for aeolian sand in the Mu Us Sandy Land: insights into particle size composition

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Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

3. Results

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1