Second language (L2) listening seems to be a determinant skill in learning which provides easy access to foreign language input for students. It also provides the opportunity for verbal exchange with second language speakers in real life (Chen & Ren, 2021). Various studies confirmed that listening is influenced by different psychological factors namely SRL, and perfectionism (e.g., Pishghadam & Akhondpoor, 2011; Wu et al., 2022). Evidence showed that in the process of interaction with others, EFL learners may experience different types of anxiety (Simsek & Capar, 2024). Listening anxiety as one of them, needs more attention and may feel when a non-proficient user of language needs to communicate by L2 in different contexts (Ji et al., 2022). Fear of failure in comprehension of oral input or speech, unfamiliarity with the specified tasks by the teacher in the classroom, and unintelligibility of oral input are among those important factors that can cause listening anxiety in L2 communication (Liu &Xu, 2021). Rahimi and Fathi (2022) asserts that individual differences have mutual effects on each other, and different people may show different reactions in the process of language learning. Thus, learners with different characteristics may show different levels of anxiety. Researchers (e.g., Rahimi & Fathi, 2022; Zhang et al., 2023) mentioned that in the L2 learning process, individual differences can be a very good predictor of learners’ failure or success. Thus, individual differences such as learners’ perfectionism, the situation in which a person defines perfect performance with a high standard for themselves (Frost et al., 1990), and SRL, students are enthusiastic in their process of learning (Zimmerman, 1989) seem to be very important factors and can predict learners’ success. Zheng et al. (2023) also emphasized on the predictive nature of individual differences in language learners’ performance.
In the EFL context namely in Iran, learners have less willingness to participate in oral activities due to low listening proficiency. It seems that in terms of level of proficiency, all skills have not developed equally. Listening proficiency as a building block of communication plays a significant role to understand the meaning and messages in any conversation (Wang & Cha, 2019). Thus, it must be the focus of the researchers in the EFL context. Evidence from the literature (e.g., Chen & Ren, 2021; Wang & Cha, 2019) revealed that learners with low or high levels of listening proficiency may experience different levels of listening anxiety in different situations which can be due to the variety of their psychological factors and lack of knowledge. Perfectionism as an effective factor can cause anxiety when students trying to improve their both listening and speaking proficiency. Learners who have higher levels of perfectionism want to achieve better achievement which leads to anxiety. Self-regulation as another important psychological factor seems to be effective in the process of learning. Therefore, searching their predictive nature as the source of anxiety is valuable to help those persons namely researchers, teachers, and educators, who are responsible for learning of EFL pupils to manage their students’ listening anxiety. In fact, finding a way to predict learners listing anxiety can be a promising tool to overcome this problem (i.e., fear of listening in the process of communication).
Evidence from different research proved the effective nature of self-regulation on anxiety which was confirmed by some theoretical works (e.g., Morosanova & Fomina, 2017; Saaidin et al., 2023). Moreover, empirical evidence revealed that the higher degree of L2 learners’ self-regulation may reduce their listening anxiety experience in different situations (Fukuda, 2022). They are convinced that self-regulation as a psychological construct has predictive power in L2 listening. Zeng and Goh (2018) released a piece of evidence that learners’ degree of self-regulation may have a possible effect on their listening performance. They cited that students with high levels of self-regulation sound to have a positive attitude toward listening. Lately, some practitioners and researchers endorsed that self-regulation has a positive effect on the listening performance of L2 learners (Saaidin et al., 2023).
With regard to perfectionism, L2 experts in the literature provide evidence for the effect of perfectionism as another psychological construct on listening. The results of some empirical studies in the literature showed that perfectionism and its components are considered as important predictors of affective factors (Hewitt et al., 2008). Razmi et al. (2020) found the interplay between perfectionism and listening performance. Amini and Shamlou (2014) examined the possible interrelationship among perfectionism, different strategies used for language learning, and L2 listening. Moreover, Zafarani et al. (2022) in their study focused on the predictive nature of perfectionism for learning in different educational contexts. From the theoretical point of view, it was understood that students who have high levels of perfectionism perform differently from those who have lower levels of different language skills.
Despite the existence of different research (e.g., Amini & Shamlou, 2014; Rahimi & Fathi, 2022; Razmi et al., 2020; Saaidin et al., 2023) on the predictive nature of the psychological aspect of learners, insufficient amount of research has been done on the interaction among EFL learners’ self- regulation, perfectionism, and listening anxiety in the L2 listening class. It seems that such constructs (i.e., self-regulation, perfectionism & listening anxiety) have an unpredictable and complex relationship. In fact, current research was conducted with the aim of revealing more information about the role of SRL, and perfectionism in predicting Iranian EFL learners’ listening anxiety. To that end, a structural equation modeling was adopted to design a regression model to test learners’ SRL, and perfectionism as the predictors of listening anxiety. Particularly, current research was pursued to reach different objectives. As the first goal, this investigation was to probe the relationship among learners’ SRL, perfectionism, and listening anxiety. The second and third objectives of this research were to probe the direct and indirect effects of perfectionism and SRL on listening anxiety. As a last objective, current research aimed at determining the extent to which SRL and perfectionism can predict students’ listening anxiety.
Theoretical Background and the Conceptual Framework
Listening Anxiety
Listening is a necessary and significant skill for communication and EFL/ ESL learners usually have a difficult time when they are going to communicate with each other in the target language ((Ji et al., 2022). In fact, the sources of this difficulty (i.e., listening for communication) could be different and depend on individual differences that may have negative or positive impacts on the L2 learning process (Rahimi & Fathi, 2022). Anxiety as one of those individual differences could have negative impacts on the performance of foreign language learners and was defined as an individual’s feeling of nervousness, apprehension, and worry in a special situation (Wang & Cha, 2019). Such a bad sense is called foreign language anxiety (FLA). Based on Horwitz et al. (1986) perspective, FLA is the feeling, emotion, and learners’ point of view on their behavior which is caused by learning the language in special conditions. Listening comprehension may lead to high anxiety if learners cannot comprehend the discourse. Thus; it can be said that as a kind of anxiety, foreign language listening anxiety (FLLA) may arise in the classroom or other contexts that need listening for communication (Wu et al., 2022). Nushi and Orouji (2020) believe that among all types of anxiety, the importance of listening anxiety has been neglected which can cause people to lose their focus and thus make communication fail. To solve this problem, the source of listening anxiety must be found. According to Chen and Ren (2021), due to the fact that mastering listening in the target language is very difficult and time-consuming, when students are communicating with each other may feel anxious for several reasons including unrelated noises in the environment, authenticity, unintelligibility of the listening text, lack of visual support, the difficulty level of speech, and worry about embarrassing results. Serraj and Noordin (2013) found a negative association between FLA and listening comprehension which confirmed the problematic nature of anxiety in the Iranian context. In addition, a reverse correlation was reported between FLA and listening comprehension, and learners with a higher level of FLA experienced a higher level of listening anxiety (Elkhafaifi, 2005). Furthermore, Golchi (2012) in a correlational investigation reported that the correlation between students’ low anxiety and their high listening comprehension in the process of communication is statistically significant.
Perfectionism
Perfectionism is a multidimensional concept that renders maladaptive and adaptive dimensions and could have an effect on the way persons meet their perceived standards (Solomon-Krakus et al., 2022). Perfectionism is defined as having standards beyond one's ability, trying to reach those unattainable goals, and defining the value of a person based on reaching those standards or goals (Pacht, 1984). Based on the traditional view, perfectionism is a negative psychological construct that leads to negative results in the process of learning (Gilabert, 2022). Therefore, from this point of view, perfectionism can be used for people with low self-confidence, which can create a negative and bad sense that they must always improve their current achievements. In fact, the traditional view offers a one-dimensional view of perfectionism.
Solomon-Krakus et al. (2022) mentioned that perfectionism is an important personality construct that entails having a rigorous critical self-evaluation, having excessive expectations of yourself to perform better, and trying for perfection with excellent and flawless performance. In addition, Frost et al. (1990) mentioned that fear of failing, trying to be excellent, equating self-worth with success, and organization are among other key components of perfectionism. In fact, perfectionism in language learning can be described as the learners’ excessively high expectations beyond their ability (Frost et al., 1990). Thus, lack of satisfaction with performance leads to experience more listening anxiety for this group of learners (Amini & Shamlou, 2014). As mentioned by Al-Mahrooqi et al. (2016) parental involvement can affect psychological status. If parents set a high standard for their children and criticize them for lower grades, it causes high learning anxiety (Mcneal Jr, 2014). In fact, the inclination for perfection among teachers, parents, and students drives them to attain flawless accomplishments, resulting in elevated levels of learning anxiety (Hashemi, 2011).
The relationship between perfectionism and L2 learning in general and language learning anxiety in specific was the focus of some researchers. For example, Pishghadam and Akhondpoor (2011) in their research confirmed the existence of a positive correlation between anxiety and perfectionism. In addition, Sönmez and Kurtoğlu (2021) in their study found that perfectionism has a positive effect on FLA and people with higher levels of perfectionism experienced higher anxiety. Moreover, the association between trait anxiety and dimensions of perfectionism was confirmed by Wan et al. (2022). Finally, Roohafza et al. (2010) found that students’ positive perfectionism can be a predictor of higher anxiety.
Self-regulated Learning
Self-regulation seems to be a significant predictor of learners’ success in different situations (Zeng & Goh (2018). Zimmerman (1989) provides a practical definition of self-regulation based on the theory of social cognitive learning. He defined SRL as the degree to which students participate actively in their own learning process motivationally, metacognitively, and behaviorally. Thus, self-regulation as an important personality trait, refers to learners’ pre-planned self-made feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and behaviors and can help them to reach their desired goals (Zimmerman, 2002). In a similar vein, Schunk and Zimmerman (2012) define SRL as self-created actions, enthusiasm, thoughts, motivation, and feelings in the process of learning. Junaštíková (2023) claims that SRL as an effective construct can represent evidence for the prediction of several influential components in learning. Actually, through self-regulation, EFL learners can monitor their learning progress, and determine their objectives clearly which leads to applying self-created learning activities to enhance their learning opportunities and competencies (Şahin Kızıl & Savran, 2018). Thus, it can be inferred that self-regulated learners are more responsible and have a high commitment to do an activity in the process of learning.
As mentioned by Park and Yun (2018), EFL learners with a higher degree of self-regulation levels are better learning managers which enables them to have more control over their learning and both affective factors. Khoshravesh et al. (2016) emphasized on self-regulated learners’ better performance in terms of self-efficacy, information processing and controlling their own learning. Seker (2016) also emphasized on development of learners’ self-regulation levels in the early stages of L2 learning since they will be better evaluators, planners, and managers who take responsibility for their language learning. In addition, researchers (e.g., Jerath et al., 2015; Shores & Shannon, 2007) believed that language learners who had a lower level of self-regulation had a higher potential to experience higher listening anxiety. So, they can use be better decision maker to reduce (Pintrich, 2004)
Much research has been done on the effect of SRL on learners’ language proficiency. For example, Morosanova and Fomina (2017) in their study concluded that self-regulation is primarily linked with anxiety and can be an important predictor of different types of anxiety namely listing anxiety. Moreover, Yazdizadeh et al. (2020) found that the employment of self-regulation can help students improve their capabilities for learning and provide them with a pleasant environment for reaching their desired learning goals with low anxiety. Finally, in terms of the sub-construct of SRL (i.e. cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies & motivation), researchers (e.g., Nordahl et al., 2023; Rahimirad, 2014; Sun et al., 2023) found that metacognitive strategies are a strong predictor of anxiety.
The Relationship among LA, SRL, and Perfectionism
The concepts of anxiety and SRL have been examined for more than three decades, and they identified as crucial factors in EFL learners' success (Chen et al., 2020). Theoretically, the existence of a correlation between anxiety and SRL has been discussed which can influence students' English learning outcomes. It means that learners' self-regulation can increase their self-efficacy and decrease other negative affective factors namely anxiety in the process of learning (Cho & Kim, 2019). Apridayani et al. (2023) empirically confirmed the association between students’ SRL and learning anxiety and found that learners with high levels of self-regulation have low FL anxiety. In addition, researchers (e.g., Abbasi & Javanmard, 2022; Kareshki et al., 2017; Tarazi & Khademi, 2013; Wu et al., 2022) found a negative association between FL anxiety and SRL in the process of communication in the classroom.
Regarding the connection between perfectionism and LA, Zafarani et al. (2022) believed that perfectionist EFL learners are often anxious, as they strive to act perfectly in personal and social terms and so creating a high sense of anxiety in them. Anxious and non-anxious FL learners’ revealed that they are different from each other’s in terms of perfectionist tendencies. The former, always are worried about being judged by others and defined by a high standard for their learning achievements, and the latter usually are more relaxed and have less worry over the ideas of others (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002). Khosravi et al. (2023) asserted that the relationship between perfectionism and LA is definite and learners with a high level of perfectionism experience a greater level of FL anxiety. As a result, those learners who feel higher degrees of perfectionism have higher fear or anxiety which can affect their L2 learning and communication. To emphasize the importance of perfectionism, other researchers (e.g., Kilbert et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2018) examined the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety and found a connection between them.
The scarcity of research investigating the notion of SRL and perfectionism as predictors of listening anxiety based on the SEM model in the EFL context, and the lack of research on this concept in Iran convinced us to design and conduct the current research. So, the current investigation is an attempt to fill the gap in the literature and answer the raised research questions based on the following hypothesized model.
Hypothesized Model
The main purpose of this research is to probe the conceptual model of perfectionism and SRL to predict the listening anxiety of learners. For this purpose, first, the relationship among different variables of the study was investigated. Then, the indirect and direct effect of each predictor variable is examined. To achieve these goals, the SEM approach was utilized as a hypothetical model. The following figure clarifies the interconnections among the observed and latent variables based on the SEM framework.
Figure1
The Standardized Regression Weights for the Structural Regression Model
With the intention of testing the hypothetical model, the following questions were raised:
Q1: What is the nature of relationship among SRL, perfectionism, and listening anxiety?
Q2. Does self-regulated learning have a significant direct and indirect effect on listening anxiety?
Q3. Does perfectionism have a significant direct and indirect effect on listening anxiety?
Q4: To what extent SRL and perfectionism can predict listening anxiety of EFL learners?