Sandstone provenance and diagenesis as tools for the definition of lithostratigraphic units

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3962235/v1

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Sandstone provenance and diagenesis as tools for the definition of lithostratigraphic units

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3962235/v1

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This study analyzes the provenance and diagenesis of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sandstone deposits of the NW South-Iberian Basin (Teruel and Valencia provinces, SE Spain) in order to understand the controls on their field appearance (color and friability), which conditioned the definition of formal lithostratigraphic units. Specifically, analyzed sandstone belongs to the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian Villar del Arzobispo Fm, a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic unit deposited in coastal, fluvial, deltaic and aeolian sedimentary environments. This unit was redefined by Campos-Soto et al. (2019), who included, at its uppermost part, the essentially siliciclastic, very friable and whitish deposits that were traditionally assigned to the Barremian El Collado Fm, because these authors demonstrated their Kimmeridgian-Tithonian age. Provenance study has included point-counting and K-feldspar and tourmaline analyzes. Sandstones are mainly arkoses, which have similar framework composition all along the studied sedimentary record. The absence of plagioclases in all samples indicates strong chemical weathering in source areas, which is characteristic of warm and wet climatic conditions. The source areas were mostly peraluminic granites, probably from the Central Iberian Zone (Iberian Massif), located more than 200 km away to the NW of the study area, and Paleozoic quartzites, slates and schists from the Iberian Massif plus sedimentary rocks from nearby areas. The lower and middle-upper parts of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm have sedimentary carbonate rock fragments, which produced pervasive carbonate precipitation during diagenesis, generating their competent field appearance. However, the uppermost part of this formation, traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm, has very low carbonate rock fragments and large amount of kaolinite epimatrixes, which generated its whitish and friable appearance. Thus, the color and friability of the sandstone deposits were mainly controlled by diagenetic processes and not by changes in source areas, advising the consideration of diagenetic processes when defining sandstone stratigraphic units.

sandstone provenance

diagenesis

kaolinite

Late Jurassic

South-Iberian Basin

According to the International Stratigraphic Guide, formal lithostratigraphic units are defined and characterized on the basis of their lithological properties and stratigraphic relations and are the basic units of geologic mapping (https://stratigraphy.org/guide/litho). However, the definition and establishment of boundaries of formal lithostratigraphic units can be challenging in siliciclastic successions, especially if they lack fossils, if the sedimentary palaeoenvironments of adjacent units are similar and/or if the limits between the units are transitional. This may be even more problematic if deposits underwent diagenetic alterations that led to changes in their composition, producing different weathering patterns and, thus, different field aspects. In these cases, petrographic analysis is essential to elucidate differences between adjacent siliciclastic units. However, siliciclastic deposits can be considered the “ugly duckling” of sedimentary petrology as, generally speaking, many scientific works do not perform an in-depth petrographic study to properly characterize and classify them, overlooking valuable petrographic and diagenetic information.

This is the case of the essentially siliciclastic deposits of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sedimentary record cropping out in eastern Spain (South-Iberian Basin, NW Valencia and SE Teruel provinces; Fig. 1), whose assignation to formal lithostratigraphic units, their limits and ages have been subject of discussion (Fig. 2). This succession has traditionally been divided in two formations (Vilas et al., 1982; Mas et al., 2004; Santisteban and Esperante, 2005; Luque et al., 2005; Royo-Torres et al., 2006; Santisteban and Santos-Cubedo; 2010):

The Villar del Arzobispo Fm, a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic-unit interpreted as deposited in coastal and alluvial settings, traditionally assigned to the Tithonian-Berriasian. The Villar del Arzobispo Fm is internationally renowned for its abundance in dinosaur fossils (e.g. Suñer et al., 2008; Alcalá et al., 2009; Royo-Torres et al., 2009), including those of Turiasaurus riodevensis, one of the largest dinosaurs discovered in Europe (Royo-Torres et al., 2006).

The El Collado Fm, an essentially siliciclastic unit interpreted as deposited in alluvial and coastal settings and traditionally assigned to the Barremian, based on its stratigraphic position. The criterion traditionally used for differentiating the essentially siliciclastic upper part of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and deposits of the El Collado Fm was their different field appearance: sandstone beds of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm are more competent in comparison with those of the El Collado Fm, which shows a friable and whitish aspect, and they contain a greater abundance of kaolin, which has been mined for decades in the region. These distinctive field aspects also made it possible to distinguish the two units on aerial photographs and to delineate them on geological maps.

However, Campos-Soto et al. (2016a; 2016b; 2017; 2019) found, for the first time, Kimmeridgian and Tithonian larger benthic foraminifera both in the deposits of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and in those traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm, demonstrating a Late Jurassic age for both units. These findings, together with the fact that, in other areas of the South-Iberian Basin and in the adjacent western Maestrazgo Basin, the essentially siliciclastic upper part (SUP) of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm displays very similar stratigraphic and sedimentological features than those of the deposits traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm (Campos-Soto et al. 2016a; 2016b; 2017; 2019), made Campos-Soto et al. (2019) question the validity of the El Collado Fm as a lithostratigraphic unit, recommending that its usage should be avoided, and including its deposits within the SUP of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (Fig. 2).

Given the important implications of these new findings, in this work we present a detailed petrographic (provenance and diagenetic) analysis of the sandstone of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, as redefined by Campos-Soto et al. (2019) (Fig. 2), in the NW South-Iberian Basin, with the main aims of discerning:

if particular field aspects (color and friability) that have been traditionally used as criteria to delimitate the Villar del Arzobispo and El Collado Fms are caused by a change in sandstone framework composition as a consequence of a shift in the source areas, which would imply substantial palaeogeographic and tectonic changes.

if the field aspect is the result of diagenetic modification, and, thus, it should not be considered a criterion to separate both units.

The results will also be compared with those obtained from the analysis of the overlying Albian-Lower Cenomanian Utrillas Fm (Fig. 2), a friable and whitish, essentially siliciclastic unit with abundant kaolin, very similar to the deposits traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm. This comparison will serve to corroborate if their similar field appearance is due to the fact that they had similar source areas and/or they underwent similar diagenetic processes.

Therefore, the results obtained in this work will highlight the importance of carrying out a detailed petrographic analysis of siliciclastic successions for stratigraphic purposes, such as trying to place the boundary between adjacent units and will evaluate the role played by diagenesis in the field aspect of the sandstone deposits.

The South-Iberian Basin (SIB, Fig. 1) is one of the extensional basins of the Mesozoic Iberian Extensional System (also referred as the Iberian Basin), which developed in eastern Iberia during the Late Oxfordian–Middle Albian and was inverted during the Cenozoic Alpine Orogeny (Salas et al., 2001; Mas et al., 2004; Martín-Chivelet et al., 2019). During its extensional development, the South-Iberian Basin was surrounded, to the E-SE, by the Tethys Ocean, to the W, by the Iberian Massif and, to the NE, by the Valencian Massif (Fig. 1B, D; Mas et al., 2004; Campos-Soto et al., 2019), which separated this basin from the Maestrazgo Basin, located to the NE (Fig. 1A-B).

The sedimentary succession studied in this work belongs to the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, sensu Campos-Soto et al. (2019) (Fig. 2). The Villar del Arzobispo Fm is a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate unit that was deposited in a shallow marine carbonate platform-lagoon that evolved upwards into an essentially siliciclastic coastal and alluvial plain (Mas and Alonso, 1981; Mas et al., 1984, 2004; Luque et al., 2005; Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017, 2019, 2022; Pacios et al., 2018), and its deposition occurred under a seasonal climate controlled by monsoonal-type precipitation (Campos-Soto et al., 2022). In all the study areas, the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, sensu Campos-Soto et al. (2019), comprises an essentially carbonate lower part (CLP) and an essentially siliciclastic upper part (SUP) (Fig. 2). The CLP is composed of bioclastic and oolitic limestone, including abundant marine fossils, alternating with marl, non-channelized sandstone, siliciclastic mudstone and minor channelized sandstone and conglomerate (Fig. 2). This succession is interpreted as deposited in a shallow marine platform that underwent deposition of sandy mouth-bars and associated distributary channels (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017, 2019, 2022), and has been dated as Kimmeridgian (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017, 2019).

Deposits of the CLP gradually change upwards to the essentially siliciclastic sediments of the SUP (Fig. 2). Deposits of the SUP are divided in this work into two subunits: i) the SUP-Vil, which comprises reddish siliciclastic mudstone alternating with non-channelized sandstone, channelized sandstone and conglomerate, and minor limestone (Figs. 2, 3A-E), assigned to the Villar del Arzobispo Fm by all the previous authors; ii) the SUP-Col, which comprises deposits traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm (Mas et al., 2004; Santisteban and Esperante, 2005; Luque et al., 2005; Royo-Torres et al., 2006; Santisteban and Santos-Cubedo; 2010), defined in the Losilla-Alpuente area, and composed of reddish siliciclastic mudstone, channelized and non-channelized sandstone and conglomerate, very similar to those of the SUP-Vil deposits (Figs. 2, 3F-H).

The main differences between the SUP-Vil and the SUP-Col deposits are: i) the SUP-Col has a very friable reddish and whitish appearance, easy to identify in the field (Fig. 3); ii) poorly-sorted subangular to subrounded pebbles and cobbles made up of siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone are common in channelized sandstone and conglomerate of the SUP-Vil, but are rare in SUP-Col; iii) rounded quartzite pebbles are common both in the SUP-Vil and the SUP-Col, although they are more abundant upwards in the succession, with lower abundance and smaller size (up to 5 cm in diameter) in the SUP-Vil (Fig. 3E) and higher abundance and larger size (up to 8 cm in diameter) in the SUP-Col (Fig. 3F) (Campos-Soto et al., 2019, 2022).

Siliciclastic deposits of the SUP (both SUP-Vil and SUP-Col) have been interpreted as deposited in a wide variety of subenvironments that developed in a coastal and alluvial plain, including flood plains, ephemeral and perennial fluvial channels, deltas deposited in shallow freshwater bodies, aeolian dunes, mouth-bars and associated distributary channels, and shallow water bodies influenced by fresh and marine waters (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017, 2019, 2022). Siliciclastic deposits of the SUP-Vil and SUP-Col are interbedded towards the SE of the South-Iberian Basin (the Losilla-Alpuente area; Fig. 2) with bioclastic and oolitic limestone and marl including abundant marine fossils, indicating that the coastal and alluvial plain was laterally connected to the SE to shallow marine carbonate areas (Campos-Soto et al., 2019, 2022).

Benthic foraminifera observed in these limestone beds (Alveosepta/Redmondellina powersi or Anchispirocyclina lusitanica; Fig. 2) allowed Campos-Soto et al. (2019) to date the SUP deposits as Kimmeridgian-Tithonian. This age strongly contrasts with the Barremian age traditionally assigned to the deposits of the El Collado Formation (Mas et al., 2004; Luque et al., 2005; Santisteban and Santos-Cubedo, 2010).

SUP deposits are unconformably overlain by the El Caroch and/or the Utrillas Fms, depending on the area (Figs. 2, 3B, H). The El Caroch Fm is a carbonate unit deposited in a shallow marine carbonate platform during the Aptian (Mas et al., 2004). The Utrillas Fm is an Albian-Lower Cenomanian siliciclastic succession that was deposited in alluvial to coastal environments (García et al., 2004). Specifically, in the study area, this unit comprises channelized sandstone and conglomerate interbedded with reddish siliciclastic mudstone, interpreted as deposited in low sinuosity fluvial channels that migrated in a flood plain (Mas and Alonso, 1981). The sandstone and conglomerate of the Utrillas Fm also include rounded quartzite pebbles in similar proportion and size than in the SUP-Col.

This study is based on the geological mapping, as well as the stratigraphic and petrographic analysis of sandstone of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, sensu Campos-Soto et al. (2019), in the northwestern area of the South-Iberian Basin (Fig. 2).

Three stratigraphic sections were logged in the areas where the studied succession shows the best outcrop conditions (Fig. 2): Villel, Riodeva and Losilla-Alpuente, with 230 m, 473 m, and 547 m of thickness, respectively. Numerous additional outcrops were studied in order to characterize their lithology, composition, fossil content, geometry and lateral continuity of beds (Fig. 1C).

139 rock samples were collected along the stratigraphic sections and the additionally studied outcrops. Each sample was prepared as doubly polished and uncovered thin sections (30 µm) to carry out their petrographic analysis under a transmitted-light microscope. From these, 29 sandstone samples were selected for performing a quantitative petrographic analysis (see stratigraphic location in Fig. 2).

The selected thin sections were studied through cold cathodoluminescence (CITL MK4 equipment, 300–500 lA, 11–16 kV, 0.1–0.2 Torr) to characterize the feldspars and carbonate grains, cements and replacements. Subsequently, the selected thin sections were etched using HF and sodium cobaltinitrite for feldspar distinction (Chayes, 1952) and carbonate-bearing samples were stained (half of the thin section) using alizarin-red and potassium ferricyanide (Lindholm and Finkelman, 1972) to identify the carbonate composition.

Quantitative petrographic analysis was accomplished on the selected fine and medium-grained sandstones under conventional polarization microscope by the integrated Gazzi-Zuffa point-counting method (Gazzi, 1966; Zuffa, 1985). This procedure is an extension of the ‘‘Gazzi-Dickinson method’’ (Ingersoll et al., 1984), which minimizes the compositional bias due to different grain size. Around four hundred points were counted per slide. Thirty-six petrographic categories have been established, including framework, cements, and porosity (Table 1). Post-depositional modifications of the original framework (e.g. feldspar replacement) were considered to reconstruct the original composition of the sandstone framework. The petrographic data reveal the restored framework compositions and the way in which composition is different from the original framework (e.g.: kaolinite epimatrix on K-feldspar, Table 1).

For quartz grains, polycrystallinity (two or three crystal units or more than three crystal units), undulosity in monocrystalline grains, and the presence of sillimanite needle inclusions were considered.

Point-counting has been focused on the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, sensu Campos-Soto et al. (2019), (n = 25, Fig. 2), as far as the main focus of the paper is to know if there is petrographic and provenance differentiation between its lower part (CSP + SUP-Vil) and its upper part (SUP-Col). Sandstone samples from the CLP, the SUP-Vil and SUP-Col were obtained from fluvial channels, deltas, mouth bars and aeolian dune deposits (Fig. 2). Furthermore, four samples of the Utrillas Fm were chosen for comparison with those of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, as the SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and the Utrillas Fm have similar field appearance (Fig. 3H). Sandstone samples analyzed from the Utrillas Fm were obtained from fluvial channel deposits (Figs. 2-3H). The particles of larger size (> 2 mm) are described at the beginning of each unit, moving later to microscopy description of the sandstone, and ending with the diagenetic features.

Porosity loss has been evaluated through the Compaction Index (ICOMPACT, Table 1) following Lundegard (1992). The sandstone framework composition (Table 1) was analyzed using various ternary plots: NCECICE (Zuffa, 1980), QFR (Pettijohn et al., 1973), RgRsRm (Arribas et al., 1990, Critelli and Le Pera, 1994), QpQnuQu (Basu et al., 1975, Tortosa et al., 1991). For definition of each parameter see Table 2.

Finally, 11 thin sections were selected for electron microprobe analysis (Jeol JXA-8900M with four detectors), to determine the composition of feldspars and tourmalines. The working conditions were 15 kV, 20 nA and 5 µm of diameter of the electron beam. Results were later calculated to mol %. Compositions of the tourmaline grains are plotted in the Henry and Guidotti (1985) diagram, as well as the ones from the available bibliography of the potential source areas. Selected areas of 2 thin sections (one from SUP-Vil and one from SUP-Col) were studied under the Scanning Electron Microscope (TESCAN Vega 4) in order to obtain Back Scattered Images to characterize clay mineral cements and replacements. Semi quantitative analyzes were performed by using its 2 EDX detectors (Bruker).

6.1. Petrographic analysis of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm

6.1.1. Sandstone of the CLP and SUP-Vil

The sandstones present granules and pebbles (up to 5 cm) of quartzite, and pebbles and cobbles (up to 20 cm) of siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone. Quartzite pebbles are progressively more abundant towards the upper part of the SUP-Vil (Fig. 3E).

The sandstones are formed by subangular to angular sand-size grains with very variable sorting, being more common the ones with moderate and good sorting (Fig. 4A-J, Table 1). They are non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites (Fig. 5A), with only one exception of a carbonate intrabasinal arenite obtained from mouth-bar sediments deposited in shallow marine carbonate areas at the CLP of the Riodeva section (RI-1, Fig. 5A, Table 1). The non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites are lithoarenites or sublithoarenites in the CLP, and arkoses and subarkoses in the SUP-Vil (Figs. 4A-H, 5B). The mean value of all samples of the CLP and the SUP-Vil is Q_60 ± 10F_25±6R_15 ± 10 (n = 17, Table 1, Fig. 5B).

Monocrystalline grains with more than 5° of undulosity are the main quartz type (Figs. 4A-J, 5C). Monocrystalline quartz grains with inherited syntaxial cements are occasionally observed (Table 1). Polycrystalline quartz with two or three crystal units or more than three crystal units are common (Table 1, Fig. 4C-D, I-J). Mono- and polycrystalline quartz grains with sillimanite needle inclusions are also common (Table 1, Fig. 4E-F).

Feldspars are always K-feldspars (orthose and in minor proportion microcline, Table 1). Microcline has been identified due to the cross-hatch pattern. The mean composition of the K-feldspars is Or_96.7±1.5 Ab_2.9±1.5An_0.4±0.6 (n = 86, appendix 1). Granophyric textures have occasionally been observed. Under the CL, the feldspars are blue luminescent, non-luminescent or very weak blue luminescent (appendix 1, Fig. 4G-H).

Regarding rock fragments, the crystalline lithic fragments formed by quartz and orthose are the most common type (Fig. 4C-D, G-H, I-J). These rock fragments may contain microcline, muscovite, tourmaline and small inclusions of apatite (Fig. 4G-H) and zircon (Fig. 4C-D). Sillimanite needle inclusions are observed within the quartz crystals of these rock fragments. Slate and schist rock fragments are also present in most samples (Table 1, Fig. 5D). Soft mud, carbonate and sandstone fragments are also observed under the microscope as grains (Table 1). Specifically, the carbonate rock fragments are extrabasinal sparitic grains of non-ferroan calcite composition (Fig. 4A-B; Table 1). The intrabasinal carbonate components, comprising micritic and microsparitic rock fragments (Fig. 4I-J; Table 1), and bioclasts and scarce ooids, are mainly present in the CLP.

Accessory minerals are muscovite and biotite (Fig. 4A-B), tourmaline, garnet (almandine in microprobe analysis), zircon, brookite and rutile (Table 3). Analyzed tourmalines are mainly schorl and, in minor proportion, dravite (appendix 2, Fig. 6).

Table 3

Mineral abbreviations: Or, orthose. Mc, microcline. Q, quartz. Ms, muscovite. Bt, biotite. Tur, tourmaline. Sil, sillimanite. Zr, zircon. Brk, brookite. Rt, rutile. Gr, garnet. (Alm), almandine (microprobe analysis). Ky, kyanite. Ba, barite. Ilm, ilmenite. Kao, kaolinite.
Fm	Roundness	Sorting	Classification Zuffa (1980)	Carbonate Intrabasinal	Classification Pettijohn (1973)	Quartz	Feldspar	Rock fragments	Accesory minerals	Diagenetic features
Villar del Arzobispo (CLP+ SUP-Vil)	Subangular to angular	Very variable, usually moderate and well	-Non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites -Carbonate intrabasinal arenite (CLP of Riodeva section)	Mainly in the north zone (Villel + bottom part of Riodeva section)	-Mean: Q_60 ± 10F_25±6R_15 ± 10 (n = 17) -Arkoses, subarkoses in SUP-Vil -Lithoarenites, sublithoarenites in CLP	-Qu > Qp> Qnu -Qm with inherited Q overgrowth -Q with Sil inclusions	-Or, Mc -CL: blue, NL, very weak blue -Or 96.7 ± 1.5 (n = 86)	-Rg: Coarse RF: Q + Or+ (Mc + Ms + Tur) Inclusions: Ap + Zr + Sil -Rm: Slate and schist RF -Rs: sparitic carbonate RF, scarce sandstone RF	-Ms & Bt -Tur -Zr -Brk -Rt -Gr (Alm)	-Or partially replaced by Kao (on grains and RF) -Epitaxial growth of Kao on Ms -K cement -Carbonate cements and replacements -Porosity ~ 0% ICOMPACT:0.8 ± 0.1
Villar del Arzobispo (SUP-Col)	Similar to sandstone of CLP and SUP-Vil	Similar to sandstone of CLP and SUP-Vil	Non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites	Only in some samples of Losilla-Alpuente area	-Mean: Q_57 ± 12F_31±7R_12 ± 10 (n = 8) -Arkoses, subarkoses	-Qu > Qp> Qnu -Q with Sil inclusions	-Or, Mc -CL: blue, NL, very weak blue, rare green -Or 97.1 ± 1.7 (n = 88)	Similar to sandstone of CLP and SUP-Vil, but < Rs > Rg	Similar to sandstone of SLP and SUP-Vil	-Similar to previous Fm but > Kao compaction (pseudomatrix), >K cement, <carbonate cements and replacements -Some porosity in samples without carbonate cements ICOMPACT:0.9 ± 0.1
Utrillas	Bimodal: angular + subrounded	Very poor	Non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites	-	-Mean: Q_54 ± 14F_32±9R_14 ± 6 (n = 4) -Arkoses, subarkoses	-Qmo > Qp> Qnu -Q with Sil inclusions -Q with anhydrite inclusions	-Or, Mc -Or 97.1 ± 1.3 (n = 22) -CL: blue, NL, very weak blue	>Rg: Coarse RF: Q + Or <Rm: Slate and schist RF Subvolcanic RF	-Ms & Bt -Tur -Zr -Rt -Gr -Ky -Ilm -Ba	-Intense Kao replacement of Or -Intense compaction of Kao and slate/schist RF -Epitaxial growth of Kao on Ms -Carbonate cement and replacement very pervasive, Porosity ~ 0% (some secondary) ICOMPACT:0.9 ± 0.1
Other abbreviations: CL, cathodoluminescence. NL, non-luminescent. RF, rock fragment. Qnu, Non-undulose quartz (less than 5°). Qu, Undulose quartz (more than 5°). Qp > 3, Polycrystalline quartz with more than 3 crystal units. For abbreviations of ternary diagrams see table 2.

Diagenetic features

The first diagenetic process observed is the partial or total transformation of some orthose grains and orthose-bearing rock-fragments to kaolinite (epimatrix of kaolinite on K-feldspar, Table 1, Fig. 7A-B). Kaolinite fans in epimatrix are 15–25 µm large along the c axis and are locally transformed to illite (confirmed by EDX, Fig. 7A-B).

Precipitation of feldspar overgrowths (Fig. 7C-D) occurred later in the K-feldspars that were not transformed to kaolinite.
A later phase of kaolinite is observed filling secondary porosity (Figs. 7C-D) and as epitaxial growth on muscovite. This second kaolinite phase present bigger fan size (40–50 µm along the c axis, Fig. 7C-D) than previous one (Fig. 7A-B) and no illite transformation is detected in this later phase.
Carbonate cements and replacements are very abundant in these deposits (Fig. 4A-J) especially in samples with high content of intrabasinal and/or extrabasinal carbonate (CI and CE) rock fragments (Table 1). Non-ferroan calcite cement, of bright to dull luminescence, encloses the two phases of kaolinite (Figs. 4I-J, 7) and corrodes the K-feldspars cements (Fig. 4G-H). Additionally, in the Villel section, ferroan dolomite constitutes a pervasive phase (Fig. 4I-J). This phase appears as rhombohedral crystals, which replace feldspar, carbonate and quartz grains of the sandstone framework and partially fill porosity (Fig. 4I-J). A similar dolomitic phase but partially dedolomitized has been observed in the Riodeva section (Fig. 7C-D), along with a postdating non-ferroan calcite (Fig. 7C-D).

6.1.2. Sandstone of the SUP-Col

The sandstones present granules, pebbles and cobbles (up to 8 cm) of quartzite in higher proportion than in SUP-Vil (Fig. 3E-F). The pebbles of siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone are scarce.

As in the underlying CLP and SUP-Vil, sand-size grains of the SUP-Col are subangular to angular with very variable sorting, being more common the ones with moderate and good selection (Fig. 8A-J). They are all non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites (Fig. 5A), with some non-carbonate intrabasinal content in some samples, due to the presence of soft mud clasts (Fig. 8A-B, Table 1). Carbonate intrabasinal grains appear only in some samples, especially those of deltaic/mouth bar origin (Figs. 5A, 8C-D, Table 1). Almost all samples are classified as arkoses and subarkoses, with a mean value of Q_57 ± 12F_31±7R_12 ± 10 (n = 8, Table 1, Fig. 5B), which is very similar to that of sandstone of the underlying CLP and the SUP-Vil. Only one of the samples is included in the field of the lithoarenites, although very close to the arkose and subarkose fields (Fig. 5A).

The types of quartz and their relative abundance are also very similar to those of the CLP and SUP-Vil (Fig. 5C). Polycrystalline quartz with more than three crystal units usually shows oriented crystals (Fig. 8D). Feldspars are always K-feldspars (orthose and in minor proportion microcline, Fig. 8A-J, Table 1). They reach up to 1 cm in size in the fluvial channel deposits (Fig. 3G). The mean composition is Or _97.1±1.7Ab _2.6±1.8An _0.3±0.3 (n = 88, appendix 1). Under the CL, the K-feldspars are blue luminescent, non-luminescent or very weak blue luminescent (Fig. 8E-F, appendix 1). Green luminescent color has been detected very occasionally (appendix 1). The types of rock fragments are the same as in CLP and SUP-Vil (Fig. 5D), but with lower amount of carbonate sedimentary rock fragments and higher amount of crystalline lithic fragments (Fig. 8I-J, Table 1). The accessory minerals are also similar to those of sandstone of the SUP-Vil.

Diagenetic features:

As in the SUP-Vil, the first diagenetic process observed is the partial or total replacement of some orthose grains and orthose-bearing rock-fragments to kaolinite epimatrix (Figs. 8I-J, Table 1), which locally is transformed to illite. Pseudomatrix is very abundant in some samples and is formed after kaolinite/illite epimatrixes and soft clasts and slate rock fragments mechanical compaction (Fig. 8D, Table 1).
K-feldspar overgrowths precipitated later and are very well developed (Figs. 8A-B, G-H).
A second kaolinite phase of larger size than the first phase, is also observed filling secondary porosity and as an epitaxial growth on muscovites (Fig. 9A-B). It is important to highlight that, although both phases of kaolinite were also observed in the SUP-Vil, in the SUP-Col are much more abundant.

Carbonate cements and replacements are much less common than in underlying CLP and SUP-Vil, but they are present in the samples that have extrabasinal and/or intrabasinal carbonates (CE and CI; Fig. 8C, E-F, G-H). When it is present, the first carbonate phase corresponds to a pervasive ferroan dolomite cement (Fig. 8C) that also replaces feldspar and feldspar overgrowths (Fig. 8G-H) and quartz. Dolomite crystals display a rhombohedral habit (Fig. 8G-H), similarly to that observed in the dolomite present in CLP and SUP-Vil. A later non-ferroan calcite cement, which displays bright or dull luminescence, has been observed in the few samples having carbonates, which also replaced part of the sandstone framework (Fig. 8E-F, G-H). In the Riodeva area the carbonate cements and replacements have not been observed in the SUP-Col deposits (Table 1).

6.2. Utrillas Fm

The sandstones present granules, pebbles and cobbles (up to 8 cm) of quartzite in higher proportion than in SUP-Col.

The samples are formed by a mixture of angular and subrounded sand-size grains (Fig. 10A-J, Table 1) and the sorting is variable (very poor to well sorted, Table 1). The sandstones are all non-carbonate extrabasinal arenites (Fig. 5A) and, more specifically, they are arkoses and subarkoses with a mean value of Q_54 ± 14F_32±9R_14 ± 6 (n = 4, Fig. 5B), quite similar to the previous formations.

Grain-sized crystalline lithic fragments mainly formed by quartz and K-feldspar are the most dominant type of rock fragments (Fig. 10A-B, E-F, Table 1). Most feldspars are totally replaced by kaolinite epimatrix (Fig. 10A-B). The ones that are preserved show a mean composition of Or _97.1±1.3Ab _2.6±1.2An _0.2±0.2 (n = 22, appendix 1).

Under CL, the preserved K-feldspars are either blue luminescent, weak blue luminescent (Fig. 10E-F) or non-luminescent (appendix 1). As in previous formations, monocrystalline quartz with more than 5° of undulosity is the main quartz type (Fig. 5C, 10A-J, Table 1). Monocrystalline quartz with corroded boundaries is detected (Fig. 10C-D). Polycrystalline grains with more than three crystal units commonly present oriented crystals (Fig. 10J). Subvolcanic rock fragments (Fig. 10G-H) and quartz with anhydrite inclusions (Fig. 10I) have been observed occasionally.

Accessory minerals are muscovite, biotite, tourmaline (Fig. 10C-D), apatite, rutile, zircon, garnet, kyanite, ilmenite and barite (Fig. 10G-H, Table 3).

Diagenetic features:

As in the SUP-Vil and the SUP-Col, two kaolinite phases are observed (Fig. 10C-D). Pseudomatrix formed by compaction of kaolinite/illite epimatrixes, soft clasts (Fig. 10J) and slate/schist rock fragments is very abundant. K-feldspar overgrowth is scarce. Carbonate cements and replacements are observed in some samples and, when present, they are pervasive, producing the fracturing of K-feldspars and even quartz grains and precipitate in primary and secondary porosity (Fig. 10E-F, G-H, J). A patchy aspect of the carbonate cements and replacements is observed under CL, showing dull and bright orange luminescent (Fig. 10E-F). Later carbonate staining reveals that dull CL corresponds to a first ferroan dolomite cement followed by a non-ferroan calcite stage (bright CL). The carbonate phase has often been dissolved subsequently (only the broken quartz grains remains), generating some secondary porosity (Fig. 10A-B, G-H).

7.1. Sandstone provenance

7.1.1. Villar del Arzobispo Fm (CLP, SUP-Vil, SUP-Col)

The petrographic analysis carried out in this work indicates that the main source rocks were granitoids, as demonstrated by the abundance of crystalline lithic fragments (Figs. 4C-D, G-H, I-J, 5D and 8I-J), formed by quartz, orthose and occasionally microcline, tourmaline, apatite and zircon. Granophyric texture in feldspars is also typical of granites (Vernon, 2018 and references therein). These rock fragments do not show orientation of the crystals, which probably discard orthogneisses as source rock, further supporting provenance from granitoids. The quartz types also strengthen this interpretation, as samples are mostly represented in the granite field and, in less proportion, in the gneiss field of Tortosa et al. (1991) (Fig. 5C).

Most of the Central Iberian Zone (CIZ) of the Iberian Massif (Fig. 1A, D) is constituted by peraluminic granites (types s₂, s₃ and s₄ of Roda-Robles et al., 2018). This type of granite is rich in peraluminic minerals like tourmaline and commonly contain sillimanite needles as inclusions in the quartz (Merino et al., 2013). In the studied sandstones tourmaline is also common and the sillimanite needles appear both in quartz grains (Fig. 4E-F) and in crystalline lithic fragments. In fact, the tourmaline compositions analyzed in this work present similar Al-Fe(total)-Mg proportions to those of the different batholiths of the CIZ with published tourmaline compositional data (Fig. 6A-B, appendix 2), which correspond to the Montes de Toledo (Andonaegui, 1992, Merino, 2014), Tormes Dome (Roda-Robles et al., 2011) and Araya type granitoids (Pesquera et al., 2013). Based on data shown in Fig. 6A-B, tourmalines were eroded from the granitoids of the CIZ. However, data do not allow discrimination of which batholite of the CIZ the tourmalines came from. The batholith of the Montes de Toledo or those of the Central System (Fig. 1A) could be the most likely source, because they are the nearest to the study area (200–250 km; Fig. 1A), but this interpretation would require further studies of different heavy mineral geochemistry.

A source of sediment from the CIZ (including the Montes the Toledo and Central System batholiths) is in accordance with palaeocurrents. According to published data (Campos-Soto et al., 2019, 2022), sandstone deposited in fluvial, deltaic and shallow marine environments of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm in the South-Iberian Basin mostly came from the NW-WSW, from the Iberian Massif (Fig. 1D). Additionally, a source of sediment from the CIZ is also in accordance with interpretations made by Caja et al. (2007), who interpreted the tourmalines of the Lower Cretaceous sandstone deposits of the Maestrazgo Basin (Fig. 1) as eroded from the granites of the Iberian Massif.

In this sense, it is important to highlight that K-feldspars are preserved despite the relatively long-distance transport, of more than 200 km, from the nearest outcropping granitoids to the study area (Fig. 1A). In fact, K-feldspars up to 1 cm in size have been observed in some fluvial channel deposits of SUP-Col (Fig. 3G). These results are also in agreement with Garzanti et al. (2012, 2015) and Garzanti (2017), who demonstrated that mechanical wear is unable to modify the relative abundance of most minerals of the sands, including those traditionally believed to be easily destroyed, such as feldspars. In fact, these deposits are interpreted as formed in fluvial channels with a highly variable seasonal discharge, which transported large volumes of sediments at supercritical flow conditions during periods of intense rainfalls (Campos-Soto et al., 2022). In such high velocities, flow can transport high sediment concentrations in suspension, from clay to gravel, as described in flume experiments (Ono et al., 2021). These flow conditions would have reduced the abrasion of feldspars and other grains transported in the fluvial channels.

On the other hand, tourmalines from granitoids represented in Fig. 6A show a maximum value of around 15% in Mg (appendix 2), whereas some tourmalines of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (5 analyzes of 25 in the CLP and SUP-Vil, and 3 analyzes of 15 in the SUP-Col) exceed this percentage, reaching up to 18.5% (appendix 2 and Fig. 6B). These more magnesic tourmalines indicate that granitoids were not the only source rock, but that there was also material eroded from metasedimentary rocks (field 4 of Henry and Guidotti, 1985).

The erosion of metasedimentary rocks is not only supported by the Mg-tourmaline, but also by the presence of slate and schist rock fragments (Fig. 8E-F, Table 1), as well as by the quartzite pebbles observed in fluvial channels (Fig. 3E, F), which, in the sand fraction, correspond to polycrystalline quartz with more than three crystal units with oriented crystals, especially abundant in the SUP-Col (Fig. 8D). These quartzite pebbles, granules and grains can derive from the Palaeozoic quartzites (including the so called “Armorican Quartzite, which crops out extensively in the Iberian Massif, Fig. 1) and/or from the Permian and Triassic Buntsandstein sandstone and conglomerate, which contain similar quartzite pebbles. Furthermore, the pebbles and cobbles made of sandstone and siliciclastic mudstone might have also been recycled from Permian and Triassic Buntsandstein rocks. As explained before, these rock fragments are more abundant in the SUP-Vil than in the SUP-Col, showing an opposite tendency than that displayed by the quartzite pebbles. Thus, during the deposition of the SUP-Vil a higher recycling of Permian/Triassic rocks probably occurred, and during the SUP-Col a higher level of erosion of the Palaeozoic quartzites of the Iberian Massif occurred. Finally, extrabasinal non-ferroan sparitic limestone fragments, which are more abundant in CLP and SUP-Vil than in SUP-Col (Figs. 4A-B, 8C), came from the erosion of nearby sedimentary units, such as Mesozoic (Jurassic carbonates and/or Triassic Muschelkalk facies) or Paleozoic carbonates of the Iberian Massif.

Thus, the source areas for the Villar del Arzobispo Fm were essentially the same during its whole sedimentation (CLP, SUP-Vil and SUP-Col), with higher inputs of carbonate source rocks in the lower part (CLP and SUP-Vil) and higher erosion of quartzite during the upper part (SUP-Col).

7.1.2. Utrillas Fm

In the Utrillas Fm, neither carbonate intrabasinal nor carbonate extrabasinal inputs have been observed (Fig. 5A, Table 1). Sedimentary rock fragments are almost absent. Quartz with anhydrite inclusions (Fig. 10I) and barite crystals (Fig. 10G-H) came from the Triassic Keuper facies (Jacinto de Compostela quartz), as well as the occasional subvolcanic rock fragments (Fig. 10G-H), which were probably eroded from Keuper-related ophites. In fact, Keuper facies and ophites largely crop out in nearby areas, such as in the Villel town (Pacios et al., 2018). Slate and schist rock fragments are rare, but their remnants are probably present as pseudomatrix. These rock fragments and some accessory minerals as kyanite and garnet (Table 3) can come from metasedimentary rocks from Paleozoic units of the Iberian Massif (including those that nowadays form part of the Iberian Range, Fig. 1A). The abundant quartzite pebbles and Q_p>3 with oriented crystals (Fig. 10J) point to erosion of Palaeozoic quartzite and/or the Permian and Triassic Buntsandstein Facies, as in SUP-Col. Moreover, as in the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, the presence of crystalline lithic fragments, quartz with sillimanite needles (also in rock fragments) and tourmaline (Fig. 10C-D) indicate the erosion of peraluminic granites such as those of the CIZ. Furthermore, tourmaline compositions are similar to those reported for CIZ granites (Fig. 6, appendix 2).

Thus, the source areas of the Utrillas Fm are similar than the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, with additional inputs of Triassic Keuper facies and without carbonate grains.

7.2. Diagenesis

The diagenetic processes and products interpreted for these units are summarized in Fig. 11. In addition, the possible provenance controls on diagenesis will be discussed here, as far as sandstone diagenesis is commonly controlled by sandstone provenance (McBride, 1985; Rossi et al., 2002; González-Acebrón et al., 2010; Arribas et al., 2014).

The samples that include carbonate grains also show carbonate cements and replacements. This is observed in the CLP and SUP-Vil deposits of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (Fig. 4A-B, G-H, I-J, Table 1) and, in less proportion, in some samples of the SUP-Col (Fig. 8C, Table 1). On the other hand, in the Utrillas Fm, carbonate cements and replacements are very pervasive (Fig. 10A-B, E-F, J), but they are not related to the framework composition, because in this formation no carbonate grain inputs have been observed (Fig. 5A, Table 1). The occurrence of these carbonate cements and replacements is probably due to the carbonate-rich fluids coming from the thick overlying Upper Cretaceous marine limestone deposits (García et al., 2004), which would have seeped into the Utrillas Fm deposits during burial. In all the studied units, when carbonate cements and replacements are present, they commonly occlude primary porosity. Only in samples of the SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm that do not have carbonate cements primary porosity is preserved (Fig. 8A-B, I-J, Table 1). Some secondary porosity is formed by dissolution of carbonate cements and replacements in the Utrillas Fm (Fig. 10A-B, G-H, 11). Thus, carbonate diagenesis is the main control on the final values of porosity in all the studied sandstones.

Regarding clay diagenesis, K-feldspars are partly dissolved, and kaolinite is formed as epimatrix in all the studied units, although it is more abundant in the SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (Fig. 8D, I-J) and in the Utrillas Fm (Fig. 10A-B). Kaolinite in epimatrixes was later partly transformed to illite during mesodiagenesis (Figs. 7A-B, 10A-B). Some kaolinite/illite epimatrixes formed pseudomatrix after mechanical compaction (Figs. 8D, 11). Pseudomatrix is also formed after soft mud fragments (Fig. 10J). Kaolinite formation is typical of the early diagenesis of fluvial sediments under wet climate, as far as it occurs at low (K⁺, Na⁺)/H⁺ ratios (Bjorlykke, 1998). For this reason, clay diagenesis is more intense in the units that include a greatest abundance of fluvial sediments (SUP-Col and Utrillas Fm; see the sedimentary environment of each sample in Table 1 and Fig. 2). This intense clay diagenesis is responsible for the high kaolinite concentration that allows kaolin mining in the SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and the Utrillas Fm.

The K-feldspars that have not been transformed to kaolinite/illite epimatrixes display K-feldspar overgrowths. K-feldspar precipitation requires high silica activity and high K⁺/H⁺ (Morad et al., 2000). In fact, the K⁺ left over after K-feldspar dissolution during epimatrix formation is commonly used for K-feldspar precipitation forming the overgrowths (Bjorkum and Gjelsvik, 1988). The late kaolinite phase precipitated in secondary porosity as cement and as epitaxial growth on muscovites (Figs. 9A-B, 10C-D). This late kaolinite postdates K-feldspars cements and ferroan dolomite cements and predates non ferroan calcite (Fig. 7C-D). This phase is related to telodiagenesis due to the input of meteoric waters during uplift (Ketzer et al., 2003). Ochoa and Arribas (2005) observed similar kaolinite phases in Triassic Buntsandstein facies of the Iberian Range (Fig. 1): an early phase of small crystal size and a late phase of larger size. Thus, nucleation rate during the telodiagenesis was lower than during eodiagenesis, generating bigger crystals during the telodiagenesis. These two kaolinite phases might be a common feature in arkoses and subarkoses that have suffered the input of meteoric water twice: during eodiagenesis and during exhumation, both under wet climate conditions.

Similar kaolinite epimatrix and/or kaolinite epitaxial growth on muscovite have also been described in several works located in the Iberian Basin (Fig. 1), such as in the Weald sandstones of the Maestrazgo Basin (Caja, 2004, Bauluz et al., 2014), and in the Cameros Basin (Arribas et al., 2014), as well as in the Utrillas Fm cropping out in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Arostegui et al., 2001) and in other areas of the Iberian Basin (Marfil and Gómez Gras, 1992).

Additionally, as it has been explained in the results chapter and the provenance subchapter, sandstone of the SUP-Vil and SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm show similar framework composition and source areas, and their different field aspect is due to the diagenetic differences: carbonate precipitation was the main diagenetic process in the SUP-Vil of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (where there are abundant carbonate grains in the sandstones and some limestone beds interlayered with siliciclastic deposits), but kaolinite precipitation was the main diagenetic process in the SUP-Col (where carbonate grains are less abundant and the carbonate interbeds are absent or much less abundant than in the SUP-Vil). These main different diagenetic processes cause the higher competence of SUP-Vil compared to the SUP-Col, which, in turn, is more friable and whitish.

7.3. Climatic inferences

The absence of plagioclase is a remarkable feature of all the studied units. All granitoids of the possible source areas contain both K-feldspars and plagioclases (Fig. 11A, Pérez-Soba, 1991, Andonaegui, 1992, Herreros, 1998, Merino, 2014). However, in the studied sandstones all feldspars are Or > 94% (Fig. 12B, appendix 1). This is related to the intense chemical weathering, which especially alter plagioclases (Adams et al., 1984). This type of weathering is characteristic of warm and wet conditions. This interpretation is also supported by the fact that: i) schist and slate rock fragments, which typically contain micas and have a low survival potential in areas of low relief and under wet climates with intense chemical weathering (Picard and McBride, 2007), are scarce in the studied areas; ii) the QFR values of all samples are characteristic of plutonic source rock weathered under wet climate (Fig. 2 in Basu, 1985), which are enriched in stable minerals as quartz due to the intense weathering. Considering that the chemical weathering mainly occurs in the source area in soil profiles (Basu, 1985; Garzanti, 2017), these climatic inferences refer mostly to the feldspar source areas (that is, the Iberian Massif, Fig. 1).

As explained in the previous subchapter (Diagenesis), the formation of kaolinite epimatrix indicated wet conditions in the studied area. The interpretation of a wet and warm climate is in agreement with the palaeogeographical and palaeoclimatic reconstructions performed for Late Jurassic in the studied area by Campos-Soto et al. (2022), who has interpreted a seasonal climate characterized by monsoonal type precipitation, and also in accordance with palaeoclimate reconstructions made by Valdes and Sellwood (1992) and Valdes (1993), who placed eastern Iberia in a subtropical latitude (Fig. 1D).

7.4. Stratigraphic implications

The results obtained in this work indicate that the stratigraphic boundary that had traditionally been established between the Villar del Arzobispo and El Collado Fms, based on their different field aspects (color and friability), is caused by diagenetic processes and, thus, cannot be used for stratigraphic purposes. This is in agreement with the interpretations of Campos-Soto et al. (2019), who redefined the Villar del Arzobispo Fm after finding Kimmerdigian-Tithonian foraminifera in the deposits traditionally considered as the El Collado Fm in the Losilla-Alpuente area, where that unit was formally defined.

Thus, this study remarks the importance of carrying out a detailed petrographical analysis when trying to establish the boundary between adjacent siliciclastic units, especially when some of them lack fossils with chronostratigraphic value, and it also highlights the important role played by diagenesis in the different field appearance of siliciclastic units.

The detailed petrographic analysis of the Late Jurassic-mid Cretaceous sandstones of the South-Iberian Basin (eastern Spain) has helped to solve a stratigraphic problem related to the establishment of limits between some of its essentially siliciclastic units:

Sandstone of the siliciclastic deposits traditionally assigned to the Villar del Arzobispo and El Collado Fms (SUP-Vil and SUP-Col of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, sensu Campos-Soto et al., 2019), which have traditionally been distinguished by their different field appearance (color and friability), display similar sandstone framework composition (QFR proportions and tourmaline and K-feldspar microprobe compositions). Thus, the main source areas were the same and mainly corresponded to the peraluminic granites of the Central Iberian Zone of the Iberian Massif, quartzites, schists and slates of the Iberian Massif (including those that nowadays form part of the Iberian Range) and nearby sedimentary siliciclastic (Permian and/or Triassic Buntsandstein facies) and carbonate (Jurassic and/or Triassic Muschelkalk and/or Paleozoic carbonates of the Iberian Massif) source areas.
The main difference between the deposits of the SUP-Vil and the SUP-Col is their diagenesis, which has controlled their different field appearance: sandstone deposits of the SUP-Vil show a carbonate-dominated diagenesis, which makes them more competent; however, those of the SUP-Col (traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm), show a clay-dominated diagenesis, with abundant kaolin, causing their friability and whitish color. These differences are related to the amount of carbonate grains and interbedded carbonates, which are much more abundant in SUP-Vil than in SUP-Col. This is in agreement with Campos-Soto et al. (2019), who included the deposits traditionally assigned to the El Collado Fm (SUP-Col in this work) into the essentially siliciclastic upper part of Villar del Arzobispo Fm, and recommended avoiding the further usage of the El Collado Fm.
The Utrillas Fm shows the same source areas than the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (as redefined by Campos-Soto et al., 2019), but without carbonate inputs and with additional inputs of Triassic Keuper facies, implying additional source areas. However, the Utrillas Fm underwent a clay diagenesis similar to that of the deposits of the SUP-Col in this study, which caused both units to show similar friable and whitish aspects and to include kaolin.
The absence of plagioclases and the scarcity of schist and slate fragments in all the studied deposits indicate strong chemical weathering in the granite source areas (Iberian Massif), pointing to a warm and wet climate. The abundance in kaolinite as epimatrix after K-feldspars indicate wet conditions in the studied area, which can correspond to periods of intense precipitation, as recently interpreted based on sedimentological data.

Competing Interests: this manuscript is sent to the Journal Iberian Geology and is not under consideration by other magazines. All authors agree in sending the manuscript in its present form. This study was funded by research projects PID2022-136717NB-I00 and PGC2018-094034-B-C21 from the Spanish Government.

9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was funded by research projects PID2022-136717NB-I00 and PGC2018-094034-B-C21 from the Spanish Government. We thank Cecilia Pérez-Soba and Carlos Villaseca for their advice in granite textures and compositions, Juan Carlos Salamanca, Aitor Antón and Beatriz Moral for thin section preparation, and Xabier Arroyo and Alfredo Fernández, for SEM and microprobe technical support.

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Tables 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.

Table1def.xls
Table 1: Counted petrographic parameters. Abbreviations: Villar Arz.: Villar del Arzobispo Fm. Losilla-A.: Losilla-Alpuente area. Mono: monocrystalline. Sorting: vp: very poor, p: poor, m: moderate, w: well. COLP: Compaction Porosity Loss. CEPL: Cementation Porosity Loss.
table2.xlsx
Table 2: Recalculated parameters used in the ternary plots of Fig. 5. See Table 1 for abbreviations.
appendix1.xlsx
Appendix 1: Feldspar microprobe analysis of each unit in Mol % of Orthose (Or), Albite (Ab) and anorthite (An) compositions (plotted in Fig. 9). Abbreviations: CL: Cathodoluminescence. NL: Non-luminescent. BL: Blue luminescent. GL: Green luminescent. Same g. Same grain than previous analysis. Other abbreviations: see Table 1.
Appendix2.xlsx
Appendix 2: Tourmaline compositions in wt % (microprobe results) and percentages of Al-Fe(total)-Mg for the studied samples and those compiled in the bibliography of possible source areas. Al-Fe(total)-Mg data are plotted in Fig. 6. See abbreviations of Table 1.

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Sandstone provenance and diagenesis as tools for the definition of lithostratigraphic units

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

INTRODUCTION

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS

6.1. Petrographic analysis of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm

6.1.1. Sandstone of the CLP and SUP-Vil

6.1.2. Sandstone of the SUP-Col

6.2. Utrillas Fm

DISCUSSION

7.1. Sandstone provenance

7.1.1. Villar del Arzobispo Fm (CLP, SUP-Vil, SUP-Col)

7.1.2. Utrillas Fm

7.2. Diagenesis

7.3. Climatic inferences

7.4. Stratigraphic implications

CONCLUSIONS

Declarations

References

Tables

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1