The CV’s plant community exhibited a high species richness, with 108 species distributed across 39 distinct botanical families (Table 1). The prominent representatives were Fabaceae (14), Myrtaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae (8), Rutaceae (7), Lauraceae (6), Moraceae (60), Arecaceae (5), and Meliaceae (5). The remaining families each had three or fewer species.
Table 1
List of families and species found in the CV’s tree community with their respective common names.
Family | Species | Common Brazilian Name |
---|
Anacardiaceae | Lithraea brasiliensis Marchand | Aroeira-brava |
| Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi | Aroeira-vermelha |
Annonaceae | Annona sylvatica A. St.-Hil. | Ariticum |
Aquifoliaceae | Ilex microdonta Reissek | Caúna |
Araliaceae | Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Decne. & Planch. | Caixeta |
| Schefflera morototoni (Aubl.) Maguire, Steyerm. & Frodin | Caixeta |
Arecaceae | Syagrus romanzoffiana Cham. | Jerivá |
| Euterpe edulis Mart. | Palmito-juçara |
| Bactris setosa Mart | Tucum |
| Livistona chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. ex Mart. | Palmeira-leque |
| Roystonea oleracea (Jacq.) O. F. Cook | Palmeira-real |
Asteraceae | Baccharis dracunculifolia DC. | Vassoura |
| Dasyphyllum spinescens (Less.) Cabrera | Sucará |
| Gochnatia polymorpha (Less.) Cabr. | Cambará |
Bignoniaceae | Jacaranda micrantha Cham. | Caroba |
| Handroanthus heptaphyllus (Mart.) Mattos | Ipê-roxo |
Boraginaceae | Cordia americana L. | Guajuvira |
| Cordia trichotoma (Vell.) Arrab. ex Steud. | Louro-pardo |
Cannabaceae | Trema micrantha (L.) Blume | Grandiúva |
Cardiopteridaceae | Citronella paniculata Mart. | Pau-de-corvo |
Ebenaceae | Diospyros inconstans Jacq. | Maria-preta |
Erythroxylaceae | Erythroxylum argentinum O.E.Schulz | Cocão |
| Erythroxylum deciduum A.St.-Hil. | Cocão1 |
Euphorbiaceae | Sapium glandulosum (L.) Morong | Leiteiro |
| Actinostemon concolor Spreng. Müll.Arg. | Laranjeira-do-mato |
| Alchornea triplinervia (Spreng.) M. Arg. | Tanheiro |
| Sebastiania brasiliensis Spreng. | Mata-berne |
| Tetrorchidium rubrivenium Poepp. & Endl. | Embirão |
| Pachystroma longifolium (Nees) I.M.Johnst. | Mata-olho |
| Sebastiania commersoniana (Baill.) L.B. Sm. & Downs | Branquilho |
| Pachystroma longifolium (Nees) I.M.Johnst. | Mata-olho |
Fabaceae | Machaerium paraguariense Hassl. | Farinha-seca |
| Myrocarpus frondosus Allemão | Cabreúva |
| Dalbergia frutescens (Vell.) | Rabo-de-bugio1 |
| Parapiptadenia rigida (Benth.) Brenan | Angico-vermelho |
| Lonchocarpus campestris Mart. ex Benth. | Rabo-de-bugio |
| Apuleia leiocarpa Vogel J.F.Macbr. | Grápia |
| Erythrina falcata Benth. | Corticeira-da-serra |
| Bauhinia forficata Link | Pata-de-vaca |
| Albizia edwallii (Hoehne) Barneby & J.Grimes | Angico-pururuca |
| Inga marginata Willd. | Ingá-feijão |
| Tipuana tipu (Benth.) | Tipuana |
| Albizia niopoides (Spruce ex Benth.) | Angico-branco |
| Inga vera Willd. | Ingá-banana |
| Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) | Timbauva |
Lamiaceae | Vitex megapotamica (Spreng.) | Tarumã |
Lauracea | Nectandra megapotamica (Spreng.) Mez | Canela-preta |
| Ocotea puberula Rich. | Canela-guaicá |
| Persea americana Mill. | Abacateiro |
| Ocotea pulchella (Nees) Mez | Canela-do-brejo |
| Cinnamomum verum J. Presl | Caneleira |
| Nectandra oppositifolia Nees | Canela-ferrugem |
Malvaceae | Luehea divaricata Mart. & Zucc. | Açoita-cavalo |
| Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna | Paineira |
Melastomataceae | Miconia hyemalis A.St.-Hil. & naudin ex Naudin | Miconia |
Meliaceae | Trichilia claussenii C.DC. | Catiguá |
| Trichilia elegans A. Juss. | Pau-de-ervilha |
| Cabralea canjerana (Vell.) Mart. | Canjerana |
| Cedrela fissilis Vell. | Cedro |
| Guarea macrophylla Vahl | Catiguá-morcego |
Monimiaceae | Hennecartia omphalandra J. Poiss. | Gema-de-ovo |
Moraceae | Sorocea bonplandii (Baill.) W.C. Burger, Lanjouw & Boer | Cincho |
| Ficus adhatodifolia Schott | Figueira-purgante |
| Maclura tinctoria (L.) | Tajúva |
| Ficus luschnathiana (Miq.) Miq. | Figueira-mata-pau |
| Morus alba L. | Amoreira |
| Ficus cestrifolia Schott | Figueira-de-folha-miúda |
Myrtaceae | Eugenia involucrata DC. | Cerejeira |
| Calyptranthes concinna DC. | Guamirim |
| Eugenia verticillata (Vell.) Angely | Guamirim |
| Psidium cattleianum Sabine | Araçá |
| Campomanesia xanthocarpa O.Berg | Guabiroba |
| Eugenia pyriformis Cambess. | Uvaia |
| Calyptranthes lucida Mart. ex DC. | Guamirim |
| Myrcia glabra (O.Berg) D. Legrand | Uvá |
| Myrcia palustris DC. | Pitangueira-do-mato |
| Eucalyptus sp. | Eucalipto |
| Eugenia uniflora L. | Pitangueira |
Nyctaginaceae | Guapira opposita (Vell.) Reitz | Maria-mole |
Oleaceae | Ligustrum lucidum W.T.Ait. | Ligustrum |
Phytolaccaceae | Phytolacca dioica L. | Umbu |
Pinaceae | Pinus elliottii Engelm. | Pinus |
Piperaceae | Piper aduncum L. | Pariparoba |
Primulaceae | Myrsine umbellata Mart. | Capororoca |
| Myrsine coriacea (Sw.) R.Br. | Capororoquinha |
Proteaceae | Roupala brasiliensis Klotzsch | Carvalho-brasileiro |
Rhamnaceae | Hovenia dulcis Thumb. | Uva-do-japão |
Rosaceae | Prunus myrtifolia (L.) Urb. | Pessegueiro-do-mato |
| Rhaphiolepis loquata B.B.Liu & J.Wen | Nêspera |
Rubiaceae | Faramea marginata Cham. | Café-do-mato |
Rutaceae | Esenbeckia grandiflora Mart. | Cutia-amarela |
| Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. | Mamica-de-cadela4 |
| Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam. | Mamica-de-cadela1 |
| Zanthoxylum petiolare A. St.-Hil. & Tul | Mamica-de-cadela3 |
| Zanthoxylum kleinii (R.S.Cowan) P.G.Waterman | Mamica-de-cadela2 |
| Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (Risso) Wight & Arn | Bergamoteira |
| Citrus x limonia (Risso) Wight & Arn | Limão-cravo |
Salicaceae | Casearia sylvestris Sw. | Chá-de-bugre |
| Casearia decandra Jacq. | Guaçatonga |
| Xylosma pseudosalzmanii Sleumer | Sucará2 |
Sapindaceae | Cupania vernalis Cambess. | Camboatá-vermelho |
| Allophylus edulis (A.St.-Hil., Cambess. & A. Juss.) Radlk. | Chal-chal |
| Matayba elaeagnoides Radlk. | Camboatá-branco |
Sapotacea | Chrysophyllum gonocarpum (Mart. & Eichler) Engl | Aguaí |
Solanaceae | Solanum sanctaecatharinae Dunal | Joá-manso |
| Solanum compressum L.B. Sm. & Downs | Canema-mirim |
Urticaceae | Urera baccifera (L.) Gaudich. | Urtigão |
Verbenaceae | Citharexylum montevidense (Spreng.) | Tarumã-de-espinho |
The calculated indices of Shannon Index (H’) = 3.65 and Evenness (J’) = 78% indicate that the plant community possesses a considerable species diversity. The diversity is expressed through richness and a homogeneous distribution of relative abundances, favoring biodiversity conservation. The Evenness value suggests a relatively uniform distribution of relative abundances among the species in the plant community. However, it is crucial to note that these indices provide an overall view of the plant community and do not consider specific factors such as ecological interaction quality or invasive exotic species.
Table 1. List of families and species found in the CV’s tree community with their respective common names.
The studies revealed the presence of twelve invasive exotic species in the CV; H. dulcis showed the highest number of sampled individuals (146). It is the species within the community with the highest RD (9.14%) and the second highest in RF (5.10%), IVC (8.85%), and IVI (7.60%) (Table 2). Additionally, the following species were identified: P. americana, T. tipu, M. alba, R. loquata, P. elliottii, Eucalyptus sp., R. oleracea, S. morototoni, C. aurantium, L. chinensis, L. lucidum, C. x limonia. All of these pose a potential risk to the maintenance of native biodiversity.
Table 2
Phytosociological parameters calculated for the arboreal community of CV. Ni = Number of individuals of the species; AD = Absolute Density; RD = Relative Density; AF = Absolute Frequency; RF = Relative Frequency; ADo = Absolute Dominance; RDo = Relative Dominance; IVI = Importance Value Index; CVI = Coverage Value Index.
Species | IND | DAP | ALT | AB | DeA | DeR | FeA | FeR | DoA | DoR | IVI | IVC |
---|
| | (cm) | (m) | | (ind. ha¹) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (m² ha¹) | (%) | (%) | (%) |
Cupania vernalis | 133 | 0.19 | 13.00 | 5.021 | 202.78 | 8.323 | 56.944 | 5.647 | 6.09444 | 9.792 | 7.921 | 9.057 |
Hovenia dulcis* | 146 | 0.17 | 13.00 | 4.388 | 184.72 | 9.136 | 51.389 | 5.096 | 2.40556 | 8.557 | 7.597 | 8.847 |
Nectandra megapotamica | 52 | 0.31 | 17.50 | 4.932 | 184.72 | 3.254 | 36.111 | 3.581 | 6.97361 | 9.618 | 5.485 | 6.436 |
Trichilia claussenii | 133 | 0.12 | 8.80 | 1.732 | 148.61 | 8.323 | 44.444 | 4.408 | 2.72917 | 3.378 | 5.369 | 5.850 |
Machaerium paraguariense | 107 | 0.14 | 12.60 | 1.965 | 130.56 | 6.696 | 37.500 | 3.719 | 2.19444 | 3.832 | 4.749 | 5.264 |
Allophylus edulis | 94 | 0.13 | 10.00 | 1.580 | 93.056 | 5.882 | 50.000 | 4.959 | 1.23194 | 3.081 | 4.641 | 4.482 |
Desvitalizada | 67 | 0.16 | 7.00 | 1.913 | 93.056 | 4.193 | 51.389 | 5.096 | 2.65694 | 3.731 | 4.340 | 3.962 |
Ocotea puberula | 36 | 0.22 | 12.70 | 1.918 | 77.778 | 2.253 | 33.333 | 3.306 | 1.62639 | 3.740 | 3.100 | 2.997 |
Casearia sylvestris | 55 | 0.13 | 8.80 | 0.815 | 76.389 | 3.442 | 41.667 | 4.132 | 1.13194 | 1.589 | 3.054 | 2.516 |
Luehea divaricata | 56 | 0.15 | 10.20 | 1.171 | 72.222 | 3.504 | 27.778 | 2.755 | 6.85000 | 2.284 | 2.848 | 2.894 |
Myrsine umbellata | 67 | 0.12 | 8.90 | 0.887 | 63.889 | 4.193 | 22.222 | 2.204 | 0.28333 | 1.730 | 2.709 | 2.961 |
Syagrus romanzoffiana | 28 | 0.20 | 10.00 | 0.926 | 56.944 | 1.752 | 30.556 | 3.030 | 1.35278 | 1.806 | 2.196 | 1.779 |
Matayba elaeagnoides | 41 | 0.16 | 10.00 | 0.974 | 50 | 2.566 | 19.444 | 1.928 | 2.66389 | 1.899 | 2.131 | 2.233 |
Phytolacca dioica | 10 | 0.49 | 18.80 | 2.360 | 43.056 | 0.626 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 0.24444 | 4.602 | 2.110 | 2.614 |
Trichilia elegans | 46 | 0.07 | 5.80 | 0.204 | 38.889 | 2.879 | 29.167 | 2.893 | 1.28611 | 0.398 | 2.056 | 1.638 |
Ceiba speciosa | 7 | 0.49 | 15.00 | 2.293 | 36.111 | 0.438 | 9.722 | 0.964 | 0.81528 | 4.472 | 1.958 | 2.455 |
Cabralea canjerana | 22 | 0.19 | 11.00 | 0.868 | 34.722 | 1.377 | 22.222 | 2.204 | 0.75417 | 1.693 | 1.758 | 1.535 |
Myrocarpus frondosus | 26 | 0.14 | 9.15 | 0.587 | 30.556 | 1.627 | 20.833 | 2.066 | 1.20556 | 1.145 | 1.613 | 1.386 |
Diospyros inconstans | 25 | 0.15 | 10.30 | 0.543 | 30.556 | 1.564 | 18.056 | 1.791 | 0.64028 | 1.059 | 1.471 | 1.312 |
Lithraea brasiliensis | 22 | 0.16 | 9.00 | 0.461 | 29.167 | 1.377 | 18.056 | 1.791 | 0.17500 | 0.899 | 1.355 | 1.138 |
Actinostemon concolor | 31 | 0.08 | 7.20 | 0.176 | 23.611 | 1.940 | 16.667 | 1.653 | 0.65833 | 0.343 | 1.312 | 1.142 |
Eugenia involucrata | 9 | 0.33 | 16.40 | 1.213 | 23.611 | 0.563 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.12917 | 2.366 | 1.252 | 1.464 |
Alchornea triplinervia | 12 | 0.30 | 13.75 | 1.079 | 20.833 | 0.751 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.16250 | 2.104 | 1.227 | 1.428 |
Cordia americana | 17 | 0.16 | 11.30 | 0.474 | 20.833 | 1.064 | 16.667 | 1.653 | 0.61806 | 0.924 | 1.214 | 0.994 |
Apuleia leiocarpa** | 9 | 0.36 | 16.00 | 1.015 | 19.444 | 0.563 | 9.722 | 0.964 | 0.84167 | 1.979 | 1.169 | 1.271 |
Euterpe edulis | 21 | 0.09 | 6.70 | 0.126 | 19.444 | 1.314 | 16.667 | 1.653 | 0.23333 | 0.246 | 1.071 | 0.780 |
Ficus adhatodifolia** | 14 | 0.20 | 10.00 | 0.606 | 16.667 | 0.876 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 1.49861 | 1.182 | 1.053 | 1.029 |
Dalbergia frutescens | 15 | 0.17 | 14.50 | 0.445 | 16.667 | 0.939 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 0.70139 | 0.868 | 0.969 | 0.903 |
Jacaranda micrantha | 12 | 0.21 | 13.30 | 0.505 | 16.667 | 0.751 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 0.21250 | 0.985 | 0.946 | 0.868 |
Cedrela fissilis** | 6 | 0.40 | 15.00 | 0.819 | 15.278 | 0.375 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.80833 | 1.597 | 0.933 | 0.986 |
Erythrina falcata | 2 | 0.81 | 23.50 | 1.163 | 15.278 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.17361 | 2.268 | 0.890 | 1.197 |
Parapiptadenia rigida | 11 | 0.25 | 14.20 | 0.582 | 13.889 | 0.688 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 3.27778 | 1.135 | 0.883 | 0.912 |
Sapium glandulosum | 14 | 0.21 | 12.00 | 0.168 | 13.889 | 0.876 | 13.889 | 1.377 | 0.35417 | 0.328 | 0.860 | 0.602 |
Trema micrantha | 17 | 0.08 | 7.00 | 0.093 | 12.5 | 1.064 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 1.40972 | 0.181 | 0.782 | 0.623 |
Cordia trichotoma | 9 | 0.23 | 14.40 | 0.407 | 12.5 | 0.563 | 9.722 | 0.964 | 0.56528 | 0.794 | 0.774 | 0.678 |
Sorocea bonplandii | 15 | 0.10 | 6.20 | 0.117 | 12.5 | 0.939 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 0.46667 | 0.228 | 0.756 | 0.583 |
Chrysophyllum gonocarpum | 10 | 0.17 | 12.30 | 0.255 | 12.5 | 0.626 | 11.111 | 1.102 | 0.29028 | 0.497 | 0.742 | 0.562 |
Sebastiania brasiliensis | 9 | 0.18 | 11.00 | 0.336 | 12.5 | 0.563 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.19028 | 0.655 | 0.682 | 0.609 |
Erythroxylum argentinum | 12 | 0.12 | 9.50 | 0.153 | 12.5 | 0.751 | 9.722 | 0.964 | 1.68472 | 0.298 | 0.671 | 0.525 |
Ocotea pulchella | 7 | 0.21 | 12.90 | 0.302 | 11.111 | 0.438 | 9.722 | 0.964 | 0.84861 | 0.589 | 0.664 | 0.514 |
Ficus luschnathiana** | 3 | 0.45 | 14.70 | 0.711 | 11.111 | 0.188 | 4.167 | 0.413 | 0.11111 | 1.387 | 0.663 | 0.787 |
Tetrorchidium rubrivenium | 5 | 0.28 | 18.60 | 0.444 | 9.7222 | 0.313 | 6.944 | 0.689 | 3.18472 | 0.866 | 0.622 | 0.589 |
Persea americana* | 8 | 0.29 | 15.60 | 0.611 | 9.7222 | 0.501 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.57222 | 1.192 | 0.610 | 0.846 |
Annona sylvatica | 9 | 0.15 | 9.33 | 0.209 | 9.7222 | 0.563 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.41944 | 0.408 | 0.599 | 0.485 |
Maclura tinctoria | 7 | 0.23 | 13.10 | 0.412 | 9.7222 | 0.438 | 5.556 | 0.551 | 0.16250 | 0.803 | 0.597 | 0.621 |
Schinus terebinthifolius | 9 | 0.13 | 7.70 | 0.137 | 8.3333 | 0.563 | 6.944 | 0.689 | 1.13750 | 0.267 | 0.506 | 0.415 |
Zanthoxylum rhoifolium | 7 | 0.14 | 9.00 | 0.117 | 6.9444 | 0.438 | 8.333 | 0.826 | 0.61667 | 0.228 | 0.498 | 0.333 |
Citharexylum montevidense | 5 | 0.18 | 9.20 | 0.126 | 6.9444 | 0.313 | 5.556 | 0.551 | 0.10556 | 0.246 | 0.370 | 0.279 |
Lonchocarpus campestris | 11 | 0.12 | 11.00 | 0.125 | 6.9444 | 0.688 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.17500 | 0.244 | 0.357 | 0.466 |
Tipuana tipu* | 2 | 0.42 | 10.50 | 0.322 | 6.9444 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.10556 | 0.628 | 0.343 | 0.377 |
Solanum sanctaecatharinae | 5 | 0.13 | 8.80 | 0.076 | 5.5556 | 0.313 | 5.556 | 0.551 | 0.09306 | 0.148 | 0.337 | 0.231 |
Eugenia verticillata | 8 | 11.9 | 10.13 | 0.034 | 11.111 | 0.501 | 4.167 | 0.413 | 0.04722 | 0.066 | 0.327 | 0.283 |
Urera baccifera | 8 | 0.11 | 4.40 | 0.080 | 5.5556 | 0.501 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.04583 | 0.156 | 0.311 | 0.328 |
Didymopanax morototoni | 1 | 0.67 | 20.00 | 0.353 | 4.1667 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02222 | 0.688 | 0.296 | 0.375 |
Calyptranthes concinna | 4 | 0.13 | 9.50 | 0.067 | 4.1667 | 0.250 | 4.167 | 0.413 | 0.98750 | 0.131 | 0.265 | 0.190 |
Erythroxylum deciduum | 5 | 0.13 | 9.00 | 0.076 | 4.1667 | 0.313 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.10417 | 0.148 | 0.246 | 0.231 |
Gochnatia polymorpha | 3 | 0.15 | 9.00 | 0.062 | 4.1667 | 0.188 | 4.167 | 0.413 | 0.08611 | 0.121 | 0.241 | 0.154 |
Pachystroma longifolium | 1 | 0.56 | 28.00 | 0.246 | 4.1667 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02500 | 0.480 | 0.227 | 0.271 |
Morus alba* | 3 | 0.12 | 7.00 | 0.037 | 4.1667 | 0.188 | 4.167 | 0.413 | 0.05139 | 0.072 | 0.224 | 0.130 |
Zanthoxylum caribaeum | 3 | 0.18 | 10.00 | 0.075 | 2.7778 | 0.188 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 1.61528 | 0.146 | 0.203 | 0.167 |
Dasyphyllum spinescens | 4 | 0.10 | 7.00 | 0.033 | 2.7778 | 0.250 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.01806 | 0.064 | 0.197 | 0.157 |
Ficus cestrifolia** | 1 | 0.50 | 10.00 | 0.196 | 2.7778 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.05556 | 0.383 | 0.194 | 0.223 |
Myrsine coriacea | 2 | 0.21 | 10.00 | 0.069 | 1.3889 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.02083 | 0.135 | 0.178 | 0.130 |
Psidium cattleianum | 3 | 0.09 | 7.00 | 0.018 | 2.7778 | 0.188 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.04306 | 0.035 | 0.166 | 0.111 |
Campomanesia xanthocarpa | 2 | 0.14 | 12.50 | 0.031 | 2.7778 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.02083 | 0.060 | 0.154 | 0.093 |
Inga marginata | 2 | 0.10 | 5.50 | 0.015 | 2.7778 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.09583 | 0.029 | 0.143 | 0.077 |
Ilex microdonta | 2 | 0.09 | 10.00 | 0.013 | 2.7778 | 0.125 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.08889 | 0.025 | 0.142 | 0.075 |
Prunus myrtifolia | 2 | 0.20 | 12.00 | 0.064 | 1.3889 | 0.125 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01111 | 0.125 | 0.129 | 0.125 |
Baccharis dracunculifolia | 3 | 0.08 | 6.00 | 0.016 | 2.7778 | 0.188 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02500 | 0.031 | 0.119 | 0.109 |
Rhaphiolepis loquata* | 1 | 0.10 | 7.00 | 0.008 | 2.7778 | 0.063 | 2.778 | 0.275 | 0.01250 | 0.016 | 0.118 | 0.039 |
Bauhinia forficata | 2 | 0.17 | 12.50 | 0.040 | 2.7778 | 0.125 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.44722 | 0.078 | 0.114 | 0.102 |
Pinus elliottii* | 1 | 0.30 | 14.00 | 0.071 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.49028 | 0.138 | 0.113 | 0.100 |
Eugenia pyriformis | 2 | 0.11 | 9.00 | 0.018 | 1.3889 | 0.125 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.34167 | 0.035 | 0.099 | 0.080 |
Eucalyptus sp.* | 1 | 0.25 | 14.00 | 0.049 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00884 | 0.096 | 0.099 | 0.079 |
Roupala brasiliensis | 1 | 0.23 | 8.00 | 0.042 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.05280 | 0.081 | 0.094 | 0.072 |
Miconia hyemalis | 2 | 0.08 | 6.00 | 0.009 | 1.3889 | 0.125 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.05280 | 0.018 | 0.093 | 0.071 |
Citronella paniculata | 1 | 0.22 | 14.00 | 0.038 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02793 | 0.074 | 0.091 | 0.068 |
Sebastiania commersoniana | 1 | 0.22 | 8.00 | 0.038 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02138 | 0.074 | 0.091 | 0.068 |
Calyptranthes lucida | 1 | 0.22 | 9.00 | 0.038 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01844 | 0.074 | 0.091 | 0.068 |
Nectandra oppositifolia | 1 | 0.21 | 8.00 | 0.035 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01571 | 0.068 | 0.089 | 0.065 |
Cinnamomum verum* | 1 | 0.18 | 8.00 | 0.025 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.05280 | 0.050 | 0.083 | 0.056 |
Solanum compressum | 1 | 0.18 | 8.00 | 0.025 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01091 | 0.050 | 0.083 | 0.056 |
Bactris setosa | 1 | 0.16 | 18.00 | 0.020 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.03534 | 0.039 | 0.080 | 0.051 |
Roystonea oleracea* | 1 | 0.15 | 6.00 | 0.018 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00884 | 0.034 | 0.078 | 0.049 |
Albizia niopoides | 1 | 0.14 | 12.00 | 0.015 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00698 | 0.030 | 0.077 | 0.046 |
Guapira opposita | 1 | 0.14 | 6.00 | 0.015 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.030 | 0.077 | 0.046 |
Xylosma pseudosalzmanii | 1 | 0.14 | 9.00 | 0.015 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.030 | 0.077 | 0.046 |
Albizia edwallii | 1 | 0.16 | 16.00 | 0.015 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.029 | 0.077 | 0.046 |
Handroanthus heptaphyllus | 1 | 0.13 | 16.00 | 0.013 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.026 | 0.075 | 0.044 |
Schefflera morototoni* | 1 | 0.13 | 13.00 | 0.013 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.026 | 0.075 | 0.044 |
Zanthoxylum petiolare | 1 | 0.12 | 9.00 | 0.011 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01091 | 0.022 | 0.074 | 0.042 |
Citrus aurantium* | 1 | 0.12 | 4.00 | 0.011 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02138 | 0.022 | 0.074 | 0.042 |
Livistona chinensis* | 1 | 0.12 | 8.00 | 0.011 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00698 | 0.022 | 0.074 | 0.042 |
Esenbeckia grandiflora | 1 | 0.11 | 6.00 | 0.010 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.04811 | 0.019 | 0.073 | 0.041 |
Eugenia uniflora | 1 | 0.11 | 6.00 | 0.010 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.05771 | 0.019 | 0.073 | 0.041 |
Hennecartia omphalandra | 1 | 0.10 | 7.00 | 0.008 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02138 | 0.015 | 0.072 | 0.039 |
Myrcia glabra | 1 | 0.10 | 7.00 | 0.008 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01320 | 0.015 | 0.072 | 0.039 |
Ligustrum lucidum* | 1 | 0.10 | 9.00 | 0.008 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.03534 | 0.015 | 0.072 | 0.039 |
Casearia decandra | 1 | 0.09 | 15.00 | 0.006 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.00535 | 0.012 | 0.071 | 0.037 |
Inga vera | 1 | 0.09 | 7.00 | 0.006 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01571 | 0.012 | 0.071 | 0.037 |
Zanthoxylum kleinii | 1 | 0.08 | 6.00 | 0.005 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.06818 | 0.010 | 0.070 | 0.036 |
Myrcia palustris | 1 | 0.08 | 6.00 | 0.005 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01320 | 0.010 | 0.070 | 0.036 |
Enterolobium contortisiliquum | 1 | 0.07 | 4.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.27271 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
Faramea marginata | 1 | 0.07 | 5.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01091 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
Guarea macrophylla | 1 | 0.07 | 5.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.01571 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
Piper aduncum | 1 | 0.07 | 5.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.34209 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
Vitex megapotamica | 1 | 0.07 | 8.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.09818 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
Citrus x limonia | 1 | 0.07 | 4.00 | 0.004 | 1.3889 | 0.063 | 1.389 | 0.138 | 0.02454 | 0.008 | 0.069 | 0.035 |
TOTAL | 1596 | 32.35 | 10.42 | 51.28 | 2216.67 | 100.00 | 1008.33 | 100.00 | 71.22 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
*Exotic and invasive tree species **Species threatened or immune to cutting | | | | | | | |
Within the tree community, nine threatened species were identified with relatively low densities: E. edulis (1.31%), M. frondosus (1.63%), A. leiocarpa (0.56%), E. falcata (0.12%), C. speciosa (0.44%), C. fissilis (0.37%), F. adhatodifolia (0.88%), F. luschnathiana (0.19%), and F. cestrifolia (0.06%). From a conservation perspective, these values are alerting, as low densities may indicate a higher risk of local extinction. However, even with low densities, the identification of these nine threatened species highlights the importance of preserving this forest fragment. The loss of any of these species could significantly hamper the diversity and stability of the local ecosystem.
Considering the IVI, the following species stand out: C. vernalis (7.92%), H. dulcis (7.60%), N. megapotamica (5.49%), T. claussenii (5.37%), M. paraguariense (4.75%), and A. edulis (4.64%). Another noteworthy factor is the presence of dead trees, which showed a high RD (4.19%) and IVI (4.34%), indicating various ecological implications. Among them, it suggests an ecosystem in the regeneration process and one with severe disturbances. In some cases, the high density of dead trees may signal health issues in the plant community, such as soil degradation, high competition, or human interference, indicating the need for management and restoration measures.
Regarding RDo, the species C. vernalis (9.80%), N. megapotamica (9.62%), and the invader H. dulcis (8.56%) stood out. Once again, it is evident that the invader becomes more pronounced within the CV’s arboreal community, demonstrating the species' high invasive capacity and the intense competition imposed on this community for light, water, nutrients, and space. This could be a determining factor explaining the high incidence of dead trees.
Table 2. Phytosociological parameters calculated for the arboreal community of CV. Ni = Number of individuals of the species; AD = Absolute Density; RD = Relative Density; AF = Absolute Frequency; RF = Relative Frequency; ADo = Absolute Dominance; RDo = Relative Dominance; IVI = Importance Value Index; CVI = Coverage Value Index. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height; GHG = Height.
Regarding the analysis combining CBERS4-A satellite images and georeferenced orthomosaics obtained through drones used as reference data for object-based validation in the identification and confirmation of the invader H. dulcis. The results indicated that the species occupies 86.44 hectares of the forest area, with an accuracy of 94.0 ± 0.05%. The overall accuracy for the analysis is 93.0 ± 0.02% (Fig. 3). The geoprocessing data shows that the species is well distributed in all urban forest environments and corroborates with the phytosociological data collected in the field (Fig. 4). The results also demonstrate that 28.89 hectares of the CV area correspond to exposed soil, which, due to the invader's high competitive capacity, may facilitate its expansion within the fragment. The native forest class is the most representative within the CV, covering 296.3 hectares.
Figure 4. Analysis – Accuracy assessment results
Figure 5. Map of the study area CV classification using the Dzetsaka Classification Tool plugin and the Gaussian Mixture Model method. Points were confirmed using georeferenced orthomosaics obtained with a drone.
The arboreal community of the CV revealed different regeneration stages, including initial, intermediate, and advanced stages, all of which registered the presence of the invasive species H. dulcis. These results align with previous studies, such as those by Schmidt et al. (2020), which state the ability of H. dulcis to colonize forest areas, regardless of the successional stage in which the invaded forest is found. Similar results are presented by Padilha et al. (2015), demonstrating the invasive success of the species even in well-conserved environments with a closed canopy in the Atlantic Forest. These findings emphasize the urgency of implementing preventive measures and control projects to contain the spread of this invasive species. However, considering the regional extent of H. dulcis invasion, these measures should begin in the ecosystem's legally protected and ecologically significant areas. Then, it should gradually expand to adjacent areas, ensuring the continued provision of ecosystem services. This result is also supported by Bergamin et al. (2022): prevention is the most effective tool against the invader. However, they emphasize that, in already invaded areas, controlling the H. dulcis population is essential, especially in high biodiversity hotspots like the Atlantic Forest.
The study area of the CV exhibited a high species richness (108), surpassing that reported by Callegaro et al. (2017), who identified ninety-nine taxa in the Conservation Unit of the Quarta Colônia State Park. It also exceeded the findings of Lucheta et al. (2015), who recorded sixty-two species in a riparian fragment in Lajeado - RS within the Deciduous Seasonal Forest domain. However, the presence of twelve exotic species in the CV area, all with some invasive potential, is concerning and indicates the fragility of this ecosystem and the influence of urban afforestation. Except for the anemochoric species T. tipu, P. elliottii, and Eucalyptus sp., all other identified exotic species are zoochoric. Venzke et al. (2014) stated that these are the two primary dispersal syndromes in the Atlantic Forest. Furthermore, Blood et al. (2016) demonstrate that urban trees influence species diversity in surrounding forest remnants, noting an increase in exotic and invasive species in these forested areas.
Additionally, the Shannon index (H') = 3.65 characterizes the study area as having high biodiversity. According to Ariotti et al. (2016), a Shannon index (H') higher than 3.2 represents a highly diverse tree community. Thus, the results of this research challenge the theory proposed by Beaury et al. (2020), asserting that forested areas with a low diversity of native species have a gap. This available niche facilitates the establishment and spread of invasive species.
Considering that the CV is in an urban environment, the species diversity found with H' = 3.65 represents a highly satisfactory value. Similar results were presented by Balbinot et al. (2016): a Shannon Index (H') = 3.7 and a Pielou's Evenness (J') = 84% for a fragment of the Turvo State Park, one of the most preserved areas of the Atlantic Forest in the RS state. Similarly, Hack et al. (2005) found a Shannon Index (H') = 3.6 in the Missões region, RS. They concluded that the fragment exhibited high floristic diversity. Similarly, Melo et al. (2022) found a Shannon Index (H’) = 3.8 for established areas in the Andreas watershed, protected by Environmental Services Payment in Vera Cruz, RS. Additionally, the results found for the CV of H' = 3.65 are superior to those presented by the continuous inventory of Rio Grande do Sul (2003), where it is observed that Shannon Index for the Jacuí-Pardo Lower Basin ranged between 1.6 and 3.1.
As for the calculated parameter of DRo, the species C. vernalis (9.80%), N. megapotamica (9.62%), and the invasive H. dulcis (8.56%) stood out. This result is attributed to the successional process of the species, characterized by increased average values of diameter, total height, and basal area, typical features of forests in a secondary regeneration stage. However, this value also highlights the aggressiveness and intense biological invasion process recorded in the CV area. Furthermore, the basal area is the most consistent variable from a biological standpoint, representing the potential spatial occupation of the site. It has also been the primary measure of dominance used in studies aiming to assess successional stages in the Atlantic Forest Biome (Siminski et al., 2013).
A study conducted by Melo et al. (2020) in consolidated areas of Environmental Services Payment (ESP) emphasized the dominance and high IVI of the invasive H. dulcis. Their study related these indices to the species' significant adaptive capacity and associated anthropogenic disturbances. Melo et al. (2020) further highlighted that H. dulcis strongly contributes to the massive biotic homogenization of the terrestrial surface. This results in the exclusion of native species through competition, leading to local extinctions and direct loss of biodiversity. Due to the deciduous habit of H. dulcis, the species annually deposits a significant load of leaves and fruits on the soil, which can modify nitrogen levels, pH, and humidity. According to Carboni et al. (2021), these ecosystem modifications can have cascading effects on plant communities, amplifying the impacts of biological invasions.
Zoochory is another factor shared among these three species, where animals disperse their seeds. This dispersal strategy may be related to the high density of these individuals. According to Camilo et al. (2021), this is the most frequent dispersal syndrome in forest systems, a factor also highlighted by Pires et al. (2021). Zoochory could be one of the main factors related to the success of the H. dulcis invasion. While the native species C. vernalis and N. megapotamica are primarily dispersed by birds, the invader is described in the diet of both birds and mammals (Kuester et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2021). Podgaiski et al. (2022) also demonstrated a high interaction of H. dulcis with the ant community in invaded areas. This could further contribute to seed germination and propagule establishment, potentially increasing invasiveness.
The geoprocessing methodology applied, using high-resolution images from CBERS4-A, proved to be efficient in detecting and quantifying the invader in large forest fragments, achieving an accuracy of 0.94 ± 0.05% for the Japanese raisin tree class and an overall accuracy of 0.93 ± 0.02%. Similar results are presented by Crisigiovanni et al. (2021) using the WorldView-2 multispectral sensor, achieving approximately 95% accuracy in H. dulcis classification. These results are associated with the light green coloration of the invader in the hygrophilic phase and the confirmation of the species through drone images.
Our results further demonstrated an occupation of 86.44 hectares of the forested area invaded by H. dulcis, contrasting with the results presented previously by Fetter et al. (2020), who used an ultralight aircraft Flyer GT equipped with a vertical camera, showing a total of 131.8 ha for the same studied area. This difference may indicate a refinement in the quantification methodology applied in this research. Furthermore, the results may be explained by the advancing urbanization over the forested area, which currently represents 51.79 hectares of the CV. This high coverage of the invader in the CV area is consistent with the studies presented by Bergamin et al. (2022). The authors demonstrated, through modeling, that 17% of global biodiversity hotspots are susceptible to the occurrence of the invader.
Therefore, H. dulcis control programs should include complementary management practices. For instance, they should focus on planting native species to replace the food resources that the target species provide. This approach helps restore the previously functioning interaction networks (Lima et al., 2015). Dechoum et al. (2015) demonstrated that cutting H. dulcis is an effective strategy in reducing seed dispersal to non-invaded areas, also showing satisfactory results for invaded areas where the species was suppressed compared to unmanaged areas.