Plant material and preparation of whole plant methanolic extract
Whole plant of Equisetum diffusum were collected from the sub-Himalayan Teari regions adjacent to Darjeeling foothills of West Bengal in November-December, 2022-23. Dr. R. K. Gupta (Scientist-E) of Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India (BSI), India identified the collected plant samples through a deposition of a voucher specimen (NBU/SS-002) (see Supplementary Figure S4).The methanolic extract of whole plant was prepared following previously published protocols 26. The finally obtained concentrated E. diffusum whole plant methanolic extract (EDME) were kept in an airtight container at 4°C until future uses.
Experimental animals
Male Wistar albino rats (8-12 weeks old; 150 ± 10 gm) were used for evaluating the anti-arthritic activity of EDME. The rats were obtained from authorized animal dealers (M/s Chakraborty Enterprise, Kolkata, India; Regd. No. 1443/PO/Bt/s/11/CPCSEA) and were kept in polypropylene cages (with 4 rats per cage) at standard laboratory conditions: temperature (25±3°C); relative humidity (60-70%); 12-hour:12-hour dark-light cycle; supplemented with standard feed and filtered water ad libitum. Before the commencement of experiments, all the animals were acclimatized for 7 days in the departmental animal house.
Experimental design and arthritis induction
Previously acclimatized rats were randomly divided into 4 groups of 6 rats each (n=6). Oral administration of dose was done using oral gavage. Group I (Arthritic control): Arthritic rats orally administered only with 0.9% saline water; Group II (Low dose): Arthritic rats orally administered with EDME (250 mg/kg b.w.); Group III (High dose): Arthritic rats orally administered with EDME (500 mg/kg b.w.); Group IV (Vehicle control): Rats orally administered with 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). All the animal groups, except vehicle control group, were injected with Freund’s Complete Adjuvant (FCA, 0.1 ml) (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) into the right hind paws (sub-plantar region) at day 0 followed by a booster dose at day 14 for arthritis induction 33,43. The oral feeding-dose was selected based on previously published acute oral toxicity tests 26. The EDME doses were administered once daily from day 0 till the end of experimental tenure (day 28).
Evaluation of arthritic progression
The degree of arthritis progression was evaluated by measuring paw edema using vernier calliper following standard published protocols 33. The paw edema was first measured at day 0 followed by intervals of 2 days till the end of experimental tenure (day 28). Arthritic scoring was performed for evaluating the clinical severity of arthritic progression in the form of paw inflammation, swelling, redness and were scored from 0 to 4. A score of ‘0’ means no swelling; ‘1’ means swelling of one toe joints; ‘2’ means swelling of toes and toe joints; ‘3’ means swelling of ankle joints; and ‘4’ means swelling of entire paw, and were given on day 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 respectively 35,53.
Body weight of individual rats was measured on weekly basis at day 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28. At the end of the experimental tenure, all animals of each group were anesthetized using sodium pentobarbital (60 mg/kg; i.p.) and euthanized by cervical dislocation. Immediately after sacrifice, the spleen, kidney, and liver were dissected out, weighed and their respective organ index were calculated following previously published protocols 54,55.
Haematological and Biochemical analysis
Blood samples were drawn through the cardiac puncture into EDTA-coated vials and different haematological parameters (total RBC and WBC counts, Hb content, and total platelet count) were measured using an automated haematology analyser (Sysmex XN-1000, Mumbai, India) following standard protocol 33. For biochemical analysis, serum was collected by centrifuging blood samples at 5000 rpm for 10 min. Total protein, albumin, and creatinine were measured using Coral Kits (Coral clinical systems, India) following standard protocols. Serum ceruloplasmin was determined following p-phenylenediamine oxidase activity 56.
Radiological parameters
The radiological imaging of right paw ankle joint was performed using a high-resolution digital X-ray machine (Allengers 325/625, Mumbai, India). The X-ray imaging was done blind-folded at 50 mA, 50 kV peak, and with 3 second exposure time. The original X-ray images obtained were manually cropped and were analysed 41.
Histopathological study
The histopathological study was performed following previously published protocols 33. Briefly, the paw ankle joints were surgically removed and fixed in 10% formalin, followed by decalcification in a solution of 3% HCl. The kidney and liver samples were also collected after sacrifice and fixed in 4% formalin. After fixation, the tissues were subjected to dehydration using serial gradations of ethanol, followed by embedding in paraffin wax. Tissues were then sectioned longitudinally (for ankle joint) and transversely (for kidney and liver) at 5 μm thickness, followed by staining with haematoxylin and eosin. After that, sections were analysed by microscopic examinations using a light microscope (Nikon Eclipse E200, Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) with 10X and 40X objectives, to which a scale bar (100 µm and 25 µm) was attached respectively 33.
Reverse transcriptase real‑time polymerase chain reaction (RT‑Q-PCR)
The animals were sacrificed on day 28 and whole blood samples was placed in an EDTA-coated tubes. The total RNA was then extracted using TRIzol LS reagent (Invitrogen, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol and the yield was assessed using a Nanodrop spectrophotometer (SPECTROstar Nano, BMG LABTECH, Germany). The total RNA from animal of each group were pooled together and cDNA was synthesised using reverse transcriptase kit (Thermo Fischer, USA; Hi-cDNA Synthesis kit, India) following manufacturer’s protocol. The prepared cDNAs were used for amplification and quantification of COX-2, TNF-α, PPAR-γ, Iκβ genes using FastStart Universal SYBR Green master dye (Roche Diagnostics, USA) in Roche Lightcycler 96 (Roche, Switzerland). For IL-6 gene, the amplification and quantification were done in Bio-Rad CFX96 Touch Real Time Detection system (Bio-Rad, USA). Briefly, cDNA (5 μl); forward and reverse primers (0.6 μl each); nuclease-free water (3.8 μl); and SYBR Green master dye (10 μl) were added in MicroAmpTM optimal 8-tube microplate strips (Applied Biosystems, ThermoFisher, USA). The microplates were then subjected to 45 cycles of denaturation at 95°C, annealing at 55°C (for COX-2, TNF-α, IL-6, Iκβ)/57°C (for PPAR-γ), and extension at 72°C in a thermal cycler. The GAPDH was included as a reference gene for estimating the relative expression of the genes, which was determined by using 2−ΔΔCT method 43. In case of the pro-inflammatory marker genes (COX-2, TNF-αand IL-6), their expression levels in the vehicle control group were considered as 1-fold, while in case of anti-inflammatory marker genes (PPAR-γ and Iκβ), their expression levels in the vehicle control group were depicted as 100% 8. The primers used in our study were designed using previously published articles and are enlisted in Supplementary Table S10.
Estimation of serum COX-2, TNF‑α, and IL-6 levels
The serum COX-2 levels were measured using an ELISA kit as per manufacturer’s protocols (MyBiosource, Inc., San Diego, USA) Furthermore, for the estimation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), ELISA assay was performed using commercial kit protocols (Ray Biotech, USA). The optical density was measured at 450 nm wavelength using a plate reader (Bio-Rad, USA).
Estimation of oxidative stress biomarkers in liver tissues
For the measurement of oxidative stress in the liver, 10% liver homogenate was prepared following previously published protocol 54. The resultant liver homogenate obtained was used for the detection of the following oxidative stress markers. To determine liver peroxidation, the level of liver Malondialdehyde (MDA) content was assayed following the standard protocol 57. The absorbance of the clear resultant supernatant was measured at 535 nm against a blank reference. The level of reduced glutathione (GSH) content was determined following the standard protocol 58. The absorbance of the resultant yellow colour mixture was immediately recorded at 412 nm against a blank reference. Catalase (CAT) activities were determined following standard established protocol 59. Changes in absorbance of the resultant solution were determined after 1 min at 240 nm. One unit of CAT activity was equivalent to the change in the absorbance of 0.01 unit/min. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were determined following standard protocol with minor modifications 60. The activity was measured spectrophotometrically by phenazine methosulfonate (PMS)-nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) assay and expressed as unit/gm tissue.
HPTLC analysis of EDME
The HPTLC analysis of EDME was performed following previously published method 61. The plate was grown employing a pre-saturated mobile phase of chloroform: ethyl acetate: formic acid (5:4:1 v/v/v) for antioxidants up to a length of 90 mm at 25±5oC in a Twin Trough Chamber (CAMAG). After drying of the plates, chromatograms were obtained using a TLC UV Cabinet 4 (CAMAG) equipped with a TLC scanner 4 operated by VisionCATS software (CAMAG; slit width 6×0.45 nm) at various wavelengths, including 254 nm, 366 nm, and 416 nm.
LC-MS/MS analysis of EDME
The EDMEwas subjected to qualitative analysis of its metabolites using HR-LCMS (HRLCMS-QTOF-Agilent Technologies, USA) carried out at Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility (SAIF) of Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (IIT Bombay), India. Column type used was ZORBAX Eclipse Plus-C18, 5 microns with 150 mm length and 2.1 mm diameter. For the mobile phase a combination of ‘Solvent A’ (0.1% formic acid in Milli-Q water) and ‘Solvent B’ (100% acetonitrile) were used at a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min and injection volume 5 µl. The gradient of the mobile phase started with 95% of ‘A’: 5% of ‘B’, changing to 0% of ‘A’: 100% of ‘B’ at 25 minutes, and finally returned to initial composition 95% of ‘A’: 5% of ‘B’ in 1 minute and which was maintained at same composition for 5 minutes. The MS analysis was carried out in both positive (+ve) and negative (-ve) ESI modes. The settings for the MS segment were set at: a gas flow rate of 13 l/min at 250°C temperature; a sheath gas flow rate of 11 l/min at 300°C temperature; and nebulizer gas pressure at 35 psig. For the data acquisition the Agilent Mass Hunter Qualitative Analysis B.06 software was used and set at MS minimum range of 126 (m/z) and a maximum of 1200 (m/z) with a MS scan rate of 1 spectra/s for identifying, profiling, and characterizing the metabolites present in the extract 50,62.
Statistical analyses
Quantitative data concerning the body weight, organ weight, and paw diameter measurement was expressed as mean ± standard error mean (SEM). For the remaining assays, all data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) or two-way ANOVA was performed following the post hoc analysis with Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test. For statistical difference values of p≤0.05 were taken as standard. All the statistical analyses, graphs generation were performed using GraphPad Prism Version 7.00 (San Diego, United States of America).