Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
POST-INTERVENTION RESULTS
|
All outcomes (i.e., across health-related behaviour, climate-change mitigation behaviour, performance behaviour, and service participation)
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 2 in main manuscript and Fig. 1. in Appendix C#)
|
30
|
0.15***
|
0.09 – 0.21 (-0.09 – 0.39)
|
93.24***
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
29
|
0.14***
|
0.08 – 0.20 (-0.09 – 0.37)
|
93.05***
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions -
desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 2)
|
5
|
0.31**
|
0.11 – 0.51 (0.01 – 0.60)
|
24.04
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions
undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 3)
|
25
|
0.14***
|
0.07 – 0.20 (-0.10 – 0.37)
|
94.17***
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
30
|
-0.02
|
.670
|
91.71***
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
27
|
0.00
|
.780
|
93.85***
|
Study quality (outlier-adjusted)
|
29
|
-0.04
|
.390
|
91.30***
|
Number of social comparison sessions (outlier-adjusted)
|
27
|
0.00
|
.683
|
93.63***
|
Study quality – undesired outcomes only
|
25
|
-0.05
|
.323
|
92.71***
|
Number of social comparison sessions – undesired outcomes only
|
24
|
0.00
|
.605
|
94.44***
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 4)
|
13
|
0.18***
|
0.08 – 0.28
(-0.07 – 0.42)
|
53.12**
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
19
|
0.05
|
-0.08 – 0.19
|
82.78***
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
12
|
0.14**
|
0.05 – 0.23
(-0.06 – 0.35)
|
43.56*
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
13
|
-0.07
|
.337
|
41.13*
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
12
|
0.01
|
.399
|
55.48**
|
Study quality (outlier-adjusted)
|
12
|
-0.10
|
.073
|
19.92
|
Number of social comparison sessions (outlier-adjusted)
|
11
|
0.01
|
.225
|
40.58
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Clearly upward social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 5)
|
6
|
0.30**
|
0.08 – 0.52
(-0.18 – 0.78)
|
70.82**
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Intended upward social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 6)
|
7
|
0.13*
|
0.03 – 0.23
(0.02 – 0.24)
|
3.72
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 7)
|
17
|
0.14***
|
0.06 – 0.21
(-0.12 – 0.39)
|
94.96***
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
17
|
-0.04
|
.657
|
94.44***
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
16
|
0.00
|
.743
|
94.99***
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for active control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions
(no outlier) (Fig. 3 in main manuscript and Fig. 8 in Appendix C#)
|
35
|
0.28***
|
0.18 – 0.37
(-0.17 – 0.72)
|
96.34***
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
45
|
0.16**
|
0.04 – 0.28
|
98.06***
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions -
desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 9)
|
24
|
0.36***
|
0.22 – 0.49 (-0.19 – 0.91)
|
92.91***
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions -
desired outcomes only (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
32
|
0.18*
|
0.00 –0.35
|
96.21***
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 10)
|
11
|
0.16**
|
0.05 – 0.27 (-0.15 – 0.47)
|
95.50***
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions – undesired outcomes only (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
16
|
0.05
|
-0.09 –0.18
|
97.45***
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
35
|
-0.03
|
.687
|
95.96***
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
30
|
0.01
|
.057
|
95.09***
|
Study quality – desired outcomes only
|
24
|
-0.04
|
.687
|
90.59***
|
Number of social comparison sessions – desired outcomes only
|
22
|
0.02
|
.129
|
92.14***
|
Study quality – undesired outcomes only
|
11
|
-0.08
|
.475
|
95.40***
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for active control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions - all of which targeted desired outcomes (Fig. 11+12)
|
10
|
0.19*
|
0.04 – 0.35
(-0.17 – 0.56)
|
80.90*
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
14
|
0.06
|
-0.16 – 0.29
|
93.58***
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
9
|
0.08*
|
0.01 – 0.15
-0.03 – 0.20
|
27.18
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
10
|
0.16**
|
.003
|
3.32
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
10
|
0.01
|
.623
|
89.21**
|
Study quality – desired outcomes only
|
10
|
0.16**
|
.003
|
3.32
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Clearly upward social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 13)
|
5
|
0.27*
|
0.00 – 0.54
(-0.19 – 0.73)
|
38.42
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Clearly upward social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig 14)
|
5
|
0.27*
|
0.00 – 0.54
(-0.19 – 0.73)
|
38.42
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Intended upward social comparison vs. active control conditions (Fig. 15)
|
5
|
0.06*
|
0.01 – 0.11
(-0.01 – 0.13)
|
18.58*
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Intended upward social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (Fig. 15)
|
5
|
0.06*
|
0.01 – 0.11
(-0.01 – 0.13)
|
18.58*
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Downward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 17)
|
7
|
0.46
|
-0.13 – 1.05
(-1.22 – 2.03)
|
89.15***
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Downward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (Fig. 18)
|
5
|
0.47
|
-0.40 – 1.33
(-1.57 – 2.51)
|
91.97***
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (Fig. 19)
|
24
|
0.25***
|
0.14 – 0.35
(-0.20 – 0.69)
|
97.38***
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
27
|
0.20**
|
0.07 – 0.33
|
98.29***
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
23
|
0.22***
|
0.12 – 0.31 (-0.16 – 0.59)
|
96.58***
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 20)
|
15
|
0.35***
|
0.17 – 0.53
(-0.25 – 0.95)
|
95.92***
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
17
|
0.28**
|
0.07 – 0.48
|
97.16***
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 21)
|
9
|
0.13*
|
0.02 – 0.25 (-0.16 – 0.43)
|
95.90***
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
24
|
-0.19*
|
.038
|
96.80***
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
19
|
0.02*
|
.045
|
96.91***
|
Study quality (outlier-adjusted)
|
23
|
-0.15
|
.084
|
96.12***
|
Number of social comparison sessions (outlier-adjusted)
|
18
|
0.01
|
.260
|
96.38***
|
Study quality – desired outcomes only
|
15
|
-0.19
|
.169
|
93.86***
|
Number of social comparison sessions – desired outcomes only
|
13
|
0.02
|
.169
|
95.98***
|
Health-related outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 22)
|
14
|
0.18***
|
0.09 – 0.27
(0.05 – 0.31)
|
8.74
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions
(trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
19
|
0.11*
|
0.01 – 0.21
|
36.04*
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
13
|
0.16***
|
0.07 – 0.24 (0.07 – 0.24)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions – desired outcomes only (Fig. 23)
|
4
|
0.37*
|
0.05 – 0.69 (-0.19 – 0.93)
|
54.50
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (Fig. 24)
|
10
|
0.14**
|
0.05 – 0.23
(0.05 – 0.23)
|
0.00
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
14
|
-0.03
|
.652
|
12.20
|
Study quality – undesired outcomes only
|
10
|
-0.07
|
.231
|
0.00
|
Study quality – outlier-adjusted
|
13
|
-0.05
|
.336
|
0.00
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 25)
|
11
|
0.19***
|
0.08 – 0.29
(-0.01 – 0.38)
|
22.12
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (trim-and-fill-adjusted)
|
16
|
0.09
|
-0.04 – 0.22
|
56.96**
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
10
|
0.15**
|
0.06 – 0.24
(0.06 – 0.24)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 26)
|
7
|
0.13**
|
0.03 – 0.23
(0.03 – 0.23)
|
0.09
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
11
|
-0.02
|
.846
|
30.90
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Clearly upward social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 27)
|
5
|
0.37***
|
0.18 – 0.56
(0.12 – 0.61)
|
13.88
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Intended upward social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 28)
|
6
|
0.10
|
-0.01 – 0.20
(-0.01 – 0.20)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Intended upward social comparison vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 29)
|
5
|
0.10
|
-0.01 – 0.21
(-0.01 – 0.21)
|
0.00
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for active control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 30)
|
14
|
0.37***
|
0.19 – 0.56
(-0.15 – 0.89)
|
57.35**
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 31)
|
11
|
0.38**
|
0.13 – 0.63
(-0.31 – 1.07)
|
69.27**
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
14
|
-0.07
|
.521
|
57.29**
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
12
|
0.02
|
.101
|
61.98**
|
Study quality – desired outcomes only
|
11
|
-0.11
|
.430
|
67.86**
|
Number of social comparison sessions – desired outcomes only
|
10
|
0.02
|
.073
|
66.02**
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for active control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 32)
|
5
|
0.29
|
-0.02 – 0.59
(-0.27 – 0.84)
|
46.64
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Clearly upward social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 33)
|
4
|
0.16
|
-0.06 – 0.38
(-0.06 – 0.38)
|
0.00
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Downward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 34)
|
5
|
0.11
|
-0.29 – 0.52
(-0.76 – 0.99)
|
73.52**
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 35)
|
6
|
0.43*
|
0.06 – 0.81
(-0.45 – 1.31)
|
79.06**
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions – desired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 36)
|
5
|
0.46
|
-0.02 – 0.94
(-0.60 – 1.52)
|
81.47***
|
Climate change mitigation behaviour outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 37)
|
14
|
0.07***
|
0.04 – 0.11
(-0.02 – 0.19)
|
72.14***
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
12
|
0.07***
|
0.03 – 0.10
(-0.03 – 0.16)
|
73.01***
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
14
|
-0.06***
|
< .001
|
22.80
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
13
|
0.01***
|
< .001
|
14.65
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 38)
|
12
|
0.08***
|
0.04 – 0.12
(-0.02 – 0.17)
|
56.61**
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. passive control conditions (outlier-adjusted)
|
11
|
0.08***
|
0.03 – 0.12
(-0.02 – 0.17)
|
58.48*
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
12
|
-0.10***
|
< .001
|
0.00
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
11
|
0.01***
|
< .001
|
0.17
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 39)
|
9
|
0.16*
|
0.04 – 0.28
(-0.18 – 0.49)
|
97.58***
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions – undesired outcomes only (Fig. 40)
|
8
|
0.12*
|
0.00 – 0.24
(-0.17 – 0.41)
|
96.33***
|
Performance outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for active control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 41)
|
9
|
0.44**
|
0.17 – 0.70
(-0.27 – 1.14)
|
94.89***
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Sub-analyses for active control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 42)
|
6
|
0.44**
|
0.12 – 0.76
(-0.29 – 1.17)
|
96.59***
|
FOLLOW-UP RESULTS
|
All outcomes (i.e., across health-related behaviour, climate-change mitigation behaviour, performance behaviour, and service participation)
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 43)
|
11
|
0.06***
|
0.02 – 0.09 (0.02 – 0.09)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 44)
|
8
|
0.06**
|
0.02 – 0.09
(0.02 – 0.09)
|
0.00
|
Analyzed moderator
|
k
|
b
|
p
|
rem. I²
|
Study quality
|
11
|
-0.04
|
.430
|
0.00
|
Number of social comparison sessions
|
10
|
0.01
|
.657
|
0.00
|
Sub-analyses for passive control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Upward social comparison (intended + clear) vs. passive control conditions (Fig. 45)
|
5
|
0.06
|
-0.07 – 0.18
(-0.07 – 0.18)
|
0.00
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 46)
|
5
|
0.06***
|
0.03 – 0.10
(0.03 – 0.10)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (Fig. 47)
|
4
|
0.06**
|
0.02 – 0.10
(0.02 – 0.10)
|
0.00
|
Overarching analysis for active control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions
(no outlier) (Fig. 48)
|
6
|
0.35**
|
0.12 – 0.57
(-0.10 – 0.79)
|
54.53
|
Sub-analyses for active control conditions (i.e., differentiated by social comparison direction)
|
Not restricted social comparison vs. active control conditions (no outliers) (Fig. 49)
|
4
|
0.30*
|
0.02 – 0.58
(-0.22 – 0.82)
|
66.68*
|
Health outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 50)
|
6
|
0.03
|
-0.08 – 0.13
(-0.08 – 0.13)
|
0.00
|
Data split – desired or undesired outcomes only
|
Social comparison vs. passive control conditions – undesired outcomes only (no outlier) (Fig. 51)
|
4
|
-0.00
|
-0.12 – 0.11
(-0.12 – 0.11)
|
0.00
|
Overarching analysis for active control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison vs. active control conditions
(no outlier) (Fig. 52)
|
4
|
0.50***
|
0.23 – 0.78
(0.11 – 0.90)
|
25.83
|
Climate change mitigation behaviour outcomes only
|
Comparison
|
k
|
g
|
95% CI
(95% PI)
|
I²
|
Overarching analysis for passive control conditions (i.e., any social comparison direction)
|
Social comparison (all of which happened to be not restricted) vs. passive control conditions (no outlier) (Fig. 53)
|
4
|
0.06***
|
0.02 – 0.10 (0.02 – 0.10)
|
0.00
|