4.1 Identity work of first-time managers
Literature in MIW within the first-time management context is dominated by research focused on individuals progressing their careers. The process can take various forms, such as shifting from a specialized position to a managerial role, to lead former peers through knowledge sharing and performance monitoring (Bolander et al., 2019). In other words, an employee ceases to be an individual contributor and becomes responsible for the work of other employees. In addition, the process can lead to an expansion of one’s scope of responsibilities by adding the element of managing to regularly perform, for example, academic (Sims, 2008) or medical (Sartirana et al., 2019) duties, referred to as hybridization.
When thinking about potential reasons for moving up to management, I recommend reflecting on Sims’ (2008) five stories that he describes as part of his autobiography aimed at explaining managerial identity formation. The first story relates to gaining managerial experience as a scholar. The author provides the benefits of such an undertaking in the form of realizing the issues worth studying, which can then be discussed in a classroom or included in a research agenda. Within this story, Sims (2008) highlights the notion of academics who disparage management professionals, which reminds me of disputes about the difference between theory and practice in management. Knowledge transfer between scholars and practitioners, or in fact the lack of knowledge, has been studied for decades (Gronow, & Leverton, 1990; Priem & Rosenstein, 2000); however, there are voices advocating for the advantages of combining the two worlds. For example, Docherty and Smith (2007) claim that looking outside university walls creates opportunities for academics to test concepts, while Rigg et al. (2021) explain that scholarly practice can aid managers in dealing with complexity and ambiguity through strengthened reflexivity. Returning to Sims’ (2008) stories, the second and third stories describe a situation in which an experienced employee is engaged in a managerial role to utilize his or her expert knowledge to establish or improve processes within a company. It is a mutually beneficial arrangement, assuming that the new manager enjoys the discipline they are to work in. In contrast, the fourth and fifth stories refer to a negative experience when an employer entraps an employee by forcing the managerial role or when an employee is no longer performing as a specialist and needs to be moved to a more generalized position; however, organizational seniority dictates assuming a leadership job.
Furthermore, Sartirana et al. (2019) provided a concise description of the microprocesses involved in MIW during hybridization. They explain that professionals who are to maintain the majority of their professional duties and take on managerial responsibilities need to first conclude the step of familiarizing, which fills the gap between what is known and what is new. Then, the new managers engage in rationalizing to understand the new hybrid identity and elaborate new meanings of the professional self. Finally, they execute legitimization through the development of cultural and social capital, which ensures credibility and authority.
Moreover, research on the MIW of first-time managers provides extensive data regarding their well-being in the workplace and emotions associated with facing new challenges. Bolander et al. (2019), based on a longitudinal study of newly appointed managers, write about excitement and despair arising from learning to become a manager. The authors divide the initial managerial journey into four phases that characterize different achievements or failures in MIW. First, they struggled with MIW and were filled with confusion, doubt, and frustration. At this stage, there is conflict between idem and ipse (Ricoeur, 1992), that is, one’s continuous identity versus actions and perceptions at a particular moment. During the phase of growing into managerial identity, there is pleasure and satisfaction as well as a feeling of usefulness of formerly completed training, if there was any. Finally, a time of realization occurs when people adopt a managerial identity. It brings relief and excitement associated with acquired confidence and readiness for further steps. However, Bolander et al. (2019) also mention the possibility of experiencing the phase of defeat, which is the abandonment of MIW. It can result from a traumatic experience or simply from realizing that the managerial role is not meant for everyone.
4.2 Identity work of experienced managers
On the other hand, there are experienced managers who, although they possess the essential knowledge and skills to perform managerial jobs, continually engage in MIW. As Rostron (2021) noted, contemplating identity within management studies has led to the attention of former research mostly being focused on how to be a manager, leaving for exploration of the aspect of being a good manager. It is important to recognize that management has a complex and relational nature in which individuals shape their identities not only in a professional environment but also through personal experiences. Bresnen et al.’s (2019) study suggested that the management profession has yet to establish the set of norms assigned, while Rostron (2021) agrees that the role of a manager is compound. His study focuses on determining how managers engage in MIW to satisfy the desire to be good managers. They supplement experiences, desires, personal history, and expectations of the social context with narrative identity, which encourages them to act well in the managerial role.
Going further, Warhurst and Black (2016) look into the concept of wisdom, which serves as a source of MIW for experienced managers. The authors challenge evidence-based management through its dominant and hegemonic nature by supporting former research proving that alternative ways of knowing are used for management decision-making (Laine et al., 2016). Knights and Clarke (2014) explain that identity is shaped through persistent achievement, while Reedy et al. (2016) remind managers that identity is defined by discursive resources. It is also important to acknowledge that managers need to exhibit normalized traits such as analytical skills and efficiency (Watson, 2009), which might lead to anxiety and insecurity (Hay, 2014) if expectations become too high. Nevertheless, the MIW of experienced individuals allows them to mitigate the negative effects of workplace pressures and turn them into opportunities. In addition, reflexivity helps individuals accept limitations and leverage strengths that allow further growth and consolidation of their managerial position (Warhurst and Black, 2016).
4.3 Management development programs
Although an experienced manager is a relative term, it certainly requires an underpinning in the form of professional experience, preferably strengthened by an MDP. Extensive research has been dedicated to that topic to understand the relevance of such programs and their potential improvement areas.
For example, Jivan (2020) takes a closer look into MIW within firms to enrich theory and aid practitioners in diagnosing the evolving capabilities for the innovation of leadership development. The author responds to the failure of developmental interventions in the context of management, which has been reported in the literature (Gurdjian et al., 2014), by studying dynamics, compromises, and contingencies in organizations.
The solution bringing value to MDPs might be to refocus them from providing techniques and skills to influencing the process of MIW and regulation (Andersson, 2012). This approach triggers participants to reflect on identities in a regulated environment, which results in lower insecurity, greater self-awareness, and possible professional and personal transformation, which in turn can improve managerial identity. Another reference to the connection between insecurity and MIW was made by Gagnon (2008), who draws on observations of corporate MDPs to determine how participants’ conformity practices, resistance, and dramaturgy (Collinson, 2003) can influence the effectiveness of such programs, thus bringing attention to the importance of their design.
Furthermore, Nicholson and Carroll (2013) extend the studies concerning MIW by going beyond the strengthening, repair, and evolution of identity. They propose the process of identifying undoing, which is a conceptual term for moments when individuals experience destabilization and deconstruction of MIW. Five manifestations, shaking, cutting apart, letting go, being playful, and floundering practiced during MDP, allow us to understand the relationship between identity and power (Nicholson & Carroll, 2013). Similarly, Carroll and Levy (2008) study MIW by examining different aspects of identity through the analysis of anti-identity and default identity revealed during MDPs. Their research touches on the subject of interrelation between various types of identities and how one can impact another in the context of differences between leadership and management, which are treated separately by Carroll and Levy (2008).
Another heavily studied aspect of MDPs is learning from Master of Business Administration (MBA). Research conducted by Sturdy et al. (2006) showed that an MBA exposes students to novel ideas and perspectives; therefore, it is deemed relevant to business education. It equips prospective senior managers with social conditions in the form of self-confidence as well as strategies through appropriate language fluency. Moreover, it provides social privilege, thus holding an opinion of a prestigious title.
Correspondingly, Warhurst (2011) describes MBA as a valuable contribution to shaping MIW. His empirical research, in combination with that of Hay and Hodgkinson (2008), reveals that MBA learning through its complexity helps management practitioners better than some critics contend. More particularly, it supports MIW by explaining what management is about, prompting reflexivity, and providing access to more experienced professionals. In addition, it boosts confidence as it teaches managerial language. Finally, it provides credibility and allows for more influence within the managerial environment. Furthermore, Warhurst (2012) found that an MBA’s formal curriculum enables managers to expand their understanding of their managerial identity and increase their professional status.
However, Knudsen et al. (2022) noted that the theory taught at MDPs might not always translate to practice. Their study revealed that participation in an MDP does not guarantee managerial authority, especially when the program is designed internally by an organization with a unitary view (Larsson et al., 2020). Given such training, managers struggle to operate under polyphonic conditions (Kornberger et al., 2006), where perspectives, goals, and interests are not aligned.
4.4 Blurred identity
The category of managerial blurred identities, by which I describe identities with inconsistent and incoherent sets of characteristics, constitutes nearly 35% of the literature within this review. Extensive research on this topic suggests that holding the role of a manager entails assuming multiple, fluid, or constantly evolving identities.
One of the most influential studies was conducted by Sveningsson and Alvesson (2003), who examined MIW to determine whether it brings struggle and internal conflict. Since managerial jobs undergo fragmentation (Mintzberg, 1973), they often require flexibility, which can be supported by a self-identity narrative. Some managers are forced to work in multiple contexts of contradictory pressure, which calls for intensified MIW that would satisfy various conditions and stakeholders. Furthermore, oscillating between multiple identities is caused by having to adjust to ever-changing situations (McDermott et al., 2013). With the aim of meeting competing demands while maintaining authority and respect, MIW takes on differentiated approaches (Paton & Hodgson, 2016). Additionally, some managers need to navigate the double dilemma when opting for localism or cosmopolitanism (Hodgson & Paton, 2016), which can directly influence MIW. Carollo and Guerci (2018) suggested that MIW could be supported by accepting workplace tensions instead of trying to resolve or ignore them, while Beech (2008) identified four forces impacting MIW. First, cognitive forces serve as values and reasons. Second, narrative forces, which are shapes and styles, make sense of events. Third, there are power dynamics enabling people to assertively take a stand, and last, there is emotional attachment, especially if it is directed at a professional group (Croft et al., 2015). All these can either catalyze or prevent change in identity, thus influencing MIW.
Another apparent issue causing a blur in managerial identity is the conflict between personal and organisational values. For example, participants of Clarke et al.’s study reported distress associated with the decision to downsize the company, which was justified by economic factors yet caused moral culpability. Another example is presented by Fung (2020), who examines the case of medical managers whose identity is being blurred by the necessity of prioritizing the primary and secondary roles of a manager and a doctor. Their struggle resides in choosing between compassion toward patients and healthcare workers versus political pressures and budgeting. Additionally, Alvesson and Svenningson (2003) report that the formulation of different moral positions drawn from leadership discourse enables MIW. In addition, some small business owners chase to act in line with ethical and social aspects of company life while reconciling economic value (Lähdesmäki, 2012). Interestingly, the altruistic values of managers can be perceived as negative in view of the public (Merali, 2009). On the other hand, there are managers who are not concerned with coherence in the context of MIW and sustainability, which contradicts mainstream opinion. Such managers seem to combine potentially divergent identities as they remove the agency and shift responsibility, hence displacing any problems away (Allen et al., 2015).
A fair few managers suffer from disparities between organizational standards and their own beliefs to the extent of questioning the sense of their role. In her autobiographical text, Mischenko (2005) shares the anxiety caused by the managerial position she holds and compares the corporate environment to that of the Matrix film, where people are connected to a false consciousness. She explains how her MIW is shaped through personal experiences and how she tries to work toward the goals of the company while serving her subordinates well. Similarly, Hay (2014) presents the emotional battle of managers based on the mismatch between professional and self-identities. While engaging in MIW, they face the expectation of what management entails, which can cause dissonance in understanding identities, causing frustration, guilt, and worry.
Blurred identity is also noticeable among managers who draw on various sources of legitimation and verification. This scenario is presented by Down and Reveley (2009), whose research shows the process of shifting from initial doubts to ultimate managerial confidence built through dramatic surgical performance (Goffman, 1990) and self-narration. Additionally, it is important to mention how international assignments blur managerial identity due to the necessity of operating in an often completely different environment (Kohonen, 2008). Or, how the blur occurs due to the phenomenon of collective identification (Löwstedt & Räisänen, 2014).
4.5 Identity work as a medium
This paragraph provides examples of what MIW can utilize. In addition to shaping the persona of a manager, MIW can also serve personal purposes, be directed at making pure devotion to subordinates, facilitate learning, or help in creating a fantasy (Sveningsson & Larsson, 2006) within a workplace.
Let me first recall the study of Warhurst (2016), which reveals that six types of MIW serve as media for learning receptivity. The first type of MIW is based on forming or furthering the desired managerial identity, fuelled by ambition and motivation. Although a managerial role can cause stress, it can be enacted with passion and offers the benefits of social status, financial security, and the feeling of pride. These factors, in turn, drive the desire to expand the knowledge and skills necessary for furthering careers. Second, Warhurst (2016) writes about achieving a coherent managerial identity, which is expressed by confidence resulting from successful competition and a deep understanding of front-line tasks. Third, distinctive managerial identity can be assisted through differentiating behaviors such as primarily caring for staff and customers, sometimes at the expense of profit and efficiency. Not all managers are eager to bend internal bureaucracy or work along their subordinates for the sake of team success; however, such an attitude can offer a number of learning opportunities. Going further, Warhurst (2016) found that learning is necessary to maintain and strengthen desired managerial identity, which allows for strategic and innovative positioning. Finally, there are instances where MIW is used for repair purposes when managers strive to overcome limitations caused by inadequacies or vulnerabilities (Warhurst, 2016).
There is also a case in which MIW is utilized for protection. Gjerde and Alvesson (2020) created the term “umbrella carriers” to describe managers whose ultimate goal is to protect subordinates from organizational burdens by filtering damaging information and acting as a buffer against pressure from top management. This approach runs counter to the performance driving perspective; however, one does not preclude the other.
MIW can also serve as a medium for becoming a hybrid manager. Bresnen et al. (2019) identify three narratives that support MIW in that context. The aspirational role comes from the desire to hold a managerial role, while the agnostic role is characterized by doubt. The ambivalent narrative involves mixed feelings. However, even when a manager arises from an aspirational narrative, he or she might be bound to his or her former specialist position by perceptions of the external actors. The reason could be that the manager creates a fantasy in which they believe in their strong leadership skills, which are not exhibited in reality (Sveningsson and Larsson, 2006). Although MIW is supposed to be the medium for establishing a managerial self, it fails due to a lack of realization.
For those who are unsure of their managerial self, Mantere and Whittington (2921) propose suggestions for MIW, which can lead to the repair, development, or fulfillment of identity. Repairment can be performed through a submissive narrative to assess self-worth as a manager. Moreover, with the use of an instrumental narrative, career goals can be met, which potentially warrants development. Finally, achieving fulfillment can be met through an aspirational narrative with the aim of meaningfully enriching oneself.
Finally, MIW can serve personal reasons, as suggested in the research of Tietze and Musson (2010). The authors describe MIW as a medium for establishing a stable sense of self in the context of changes to the working environment, which is hampered in the home-office setting. Interestingly, a male manager fails to accept the situation where he does not physically leave the home to earn the bread, because his idea of the paternal figure assumes returning from work. Simultaneously, he believes that as a manager he should be close to his team, visible and present. He is a strong advocate of separating these two spaces and is able to engage in MIW only when that condition is met.
4.6 External perceptions of identity
MIW eventually leads to salient (Stets & Burke, 2000) managerial identity, which becomes strongly visible to the audience and is subject to external perceptions. Lees-Marshment and Jones (2018) developed a model of flexible identities, and although it refers to political leaders, I believe it can be transferred to the general managerial population. The first flexible identity, referred to as the traveler, is characterized by constant movement between metaphorical locations such as different social groups. While representing an organization and its regulations, MIW might create a spurious picture. In contrast, when people are close to their peers and subordinates, managers start using embodied language, which is perceived as authentic. Second, the identity of the master, where the manager is regarded as a strong, authoritative figure, makes difficult decisions when contradictory demands exist. The MIW of the master assures that the manager will offer protection from the precariousness of unsafe circumstances. Furthermore, the identity of the consultor is perceived as the one that is necessary to effectively lead any kind of unit or initiative. A controlling attitude is deemed ineffective; thus, managers need to cooperate, or in other words, consult, to retain legitimacy. Finally, the identity of the adjudicator places a manager as a fair and neutral person who enacts legal requirements. MIW in such cases involves making boundaries, using distancing verbs, behaving in a formal manner and paying attention to the process.
Although external perceptions of managerial identity have limitations due to factors such as individuals’ perceptions (Wimschneider & Brem, 2019) or cultural influence (Saavedra Llamas & Grijalba de la Calle, 2020), Szostak and Sułkowski (2021) were able to establish a list of characteristics typical for managerial identity. It is worth noting that their study is the only quantitative research included in this review. The results of their questionnaire revealed that MIW is perceived as guaranteeing “efficiency, responsibility, ability to resolve conflicts, ability to set goals, tendency to plan, patience and persistence in achieving goals, ability to analyze” as well as to aid in “leadership, self-confidence, and interpersonal skills” (Szostak and Sułkowski, 2021). Moreover, external perceptions about MIW can be studied through small stories, as in the research of Clifton (2014), who examined everyday workplace interactions with a discursive approach to leadership. He claims that people perceived as leaders are the ones who are the most influential if we consider leadership to be managing meaning. This statement is based on Bourdieu’s (1991, p. 220) idea of leaders’ contribution to shaping reality. Therefore, the manager perceives that such a person goes to speak and takes on institutional identity to act as the company, which suggests that MIW is about vocalizing statements and sharing opinions.
4.7 Creation of a preferred identity
The majority of research on MIW is conducted through interviews, which is confirmed by the methods applied in the articles selected for this review, of which at least 89% interviewed the participants. I see similarity between identity and interviews in the form of facade. According to interpretivist criticism, we need to assume that interviews only allow us to discover what actors want to reveal (Rostron, 2014) and that the same applies to identify, which conceals what is truly only known to the internal self.
Some managers engage in their identity work to make impressions that they associate as desirable in the environment in which they are working. For example, managers who work in the construction industry to promote innovation want to be seen as agents of change (Sergeeva & Green, 2019). The MIW of these managers is concentrated on determining which activities are considered innovative and proceeding accordingly. Perhaps some managers seek to be perceived as effective and simultaneously ethical, which constitutes a competent manager at Disneyland, as discovered by Bardon et al. (2017). In such a scenario, MIW entails applying practical wisdom, referred to as phronesis, to make decisions that satisfy both requirements (Bardon et al., 2017). There are also managers who want to be valuable and valued; however, their extensive efforts can lead to damaging identity and need to be controlled in time to avoid sacrificing personal life (Cowen & Hodgson, 2015).
Therefore, to protect oneself from occupational stress and damage, MIW can serve as a defensive mechanism. Brown et al. (2021) provide the results of their study of high-achieving deans, that is, managers within a scholarly environment, who employ MIW with the aim of presenting their personal sacrifices throughout their career. The reasoning behind this approach is to reduce the potential criticism that they might receive. Such managers forge power relations and construct preferred identities of management figures to survive the austere conditions of management. Moreover, the defensive aspect of MIW can be used to hide vulnerability, especially because the managerial role is associated with the opposite characteristic. Nevertheless, a manager has assigned normative masculine notions of strength, control, and knowledgeability; therefore, vulnerability is considered to be a weakness concealed through MIW. However, Corlett et al. (2019) propose a mature view of vulnerability, which can serve as an opportunity for learning. The authors propose processes through which vulnerability can be harnessed to determine areas of improvement and proactively develop them with the help of trusted individuals.
Furthermore, MIW can be utilized to enable or constrain power implications, as explained by Koveshnikov and Ehrnrooth (2016). They study MIW in relation to cultural stereotypes and derive three forms of MIW, which they call stereotypical, reactive, and self-reflexive talk. In particular, stereotypical talk, which occurs through a nonreflexive approach, can lead to superiority-inferiority. Usually, self-esteem enhancement is applied by managers who want to enhance their self-esteem but can have negative effects on workplace relations.
4.8 Identity of minorities
The increased representation of minority groups among supervisory authorities was preached by Maume Jr. (1999a), who wrote about white women as well as black men and women being disproportionately excluded from the managerial cohort. Similarly, Maume Jr. (1999b) explained how female managers were set for failure due to shunning and ostracism by informal work groups. For more than 20 years, researchers have studied inequality and struggles among underrepresented people within the managerial context. According to Carrim and Nkomo (2016), “the construction of managerial identity has largely been positioned as a homogeneous phenomenon premised upon masculine constructions without full recognition of how it is complicated by the intersection of racio-ethnicity, gender, and other categories of social difference”.
Pini’s (2005) discourse on managerial identity brings attention to hegemonic masculinity and the claim that a real manager means being a real man, both of which are terms characterized by emotional neutrality, individuality, control, rationality, assertiveness, and objectivity. The author studies the challenges of women who engage in MIW to build their position on a managerial board in a male-dominant industry. Although they are all well educated and skilled at performing their roles, they need to face gender stereotypes that place them in a domestic setting. The MIW of female managers requires balancing masculine and feminine behaviors, which is an exhausting process through which women feel like a third sex. Pini (2005) summarizes women’s MIW as the struggle to exhibit strong characteristics that build authority in combination with soft skills such as orientation toward relationships and (controlled) emotions. In other words, the MIW of women assumes treating gender in Butler’s (1900, p. 25) terms, that is, as performative, serving as the means toward a specific goal. In addition, Lewis (2015) discusses performing gender, which is referred to by Martin et al. (2020) in their understanding of women’s MIW where multiple roles can be considered juggling. Again, women combine masculine, rational discourse with feminine traits of empathy, protection, and support. However, they distinguish the environments in which they can exhibit these contradictory characteristics. Nevertheless, successful MIW, which merges the two personalities, allows women to lead and challenge others.
Furthermore, an interesting feature of MIW has been noted by Mavin and Grandy (2016), who develop a theory of Abject Appearance. They discuss an element of physicality in an organizational setting with a focus on female perceptions. Within that context, Mavin and Grandy (2016) identify three themes: fascination with appearance, refocusing from one’s appearance, and achieving a professional balance. It explains how women tend to judge based on the looks of the body and that often appealing physics is associated with female managerial success. Mavin and Grandy (2016) mention that there are instances in which women are evaluated based on their appearance. This seems to be an important issue, as other researchers have also disputed physicality within the workplace; thus, Pini (2005) reveals the experiences of female managers who advise being devoid of sexuality to maintain respect and authority.
Finally, with regard to women and their MIW, there are extreme cases, such as stepping into the unknown environment from a culture that assumes female submission and follow-up (Carrim & Nkomo, 2016). In a setting where women are taught to exhibit obedience, modesty, respect, and subservient behavior, it is an enormous challenge to assume a managerial role requiring authority and confidence. Carrim and Nkomo (2016) explain that the MIW of women with such backgrounds is often based on mimicking the identity of male colleagues with whom they are working. However, such a strategy does not guarantee the avoidance of challenges related to authority and competence, barriers to promotion, or exclusion from informal networks.
There are additional examples of minorities in management, especially in societies with multiple racial and cultural stereotypes. Evans and Sinclair (2016) study MIW within the aboriginal environment, where identity practices include demonstrations of diverse cultural identities, resistance to essentialist personas, and campaigns for reimaging and recreating belonging. In such environments, MIW takes place in addition to shaping personal identities as well as attempting to conform with or fight against imposed expectations (Evans & Sinclair, 2016).
The final marginalized group of managers discussed in this review is lesbian and gay men. Their sexual orientation might be perceived as a hindrance to managerial identity and career development, which Burnett (2010) explained through negative stereotyping. However, according to Rumens (2011), entering friendly relationships with heterosexual peers within the workplace can support MIW. Although such statements could currently be controversial, Rumens (2011) did conclude that lesbians and gay men have to follow heteronormative queues within organizations if they plan to pursue careers in management. Further research revealed that the antigay sentiment in a workplace still remains, as Co Man et al.’s (2017) survey results revealed the likelihood of disapproving of an openly gay manager. However, lesbians’ MIW might actually result in positive outcomes if performed in a well-designed manner, which is associated with perceiving lesbians as masculine and thus with high leadership effectiveness (Shamloo, 2022).