Different Kinds of Emotional Responses to Climate Change
Emotions are defined as changes in organic subsystems in response to an external or internal stimulus appraised as relevant to the individual (Brosch, 2021; Scherer, 2005). Emotional responses to climate change are defined as affective phenomena associated with the climate crisis (Pihkala, 2022). When faced with stressful events, individuals are expected to experience multiple and even conflicting emotions (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). It is therefore not surprising that emotional responses to climate change are many and varied, ranging from negative feelings such as despair, anger, and shame to positive feelings such as hope and pride (Hickman et al., 2021; Pihkala, 2022; Stanley et al., 2021). The emotional responses discussed in this paper comprise four groups of emotions: positive emotions, negative emotions, indifference, and CCA.
Positive emotions and negative emotions. Empirical research has consistently found that positive emotions and negative emotions are two distinct dimensions, usually described as positive affect and negative affect (Feldman, 2006; Watson et al., 1988). Positive affect is marked by a state of high energy, full concentration, and pleasurable engagement that reflects the extent to which the individual feels enthusiastic and active. Negative affect, in contrast, is a general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasant engagement that includes aversive mood states such as anger, fear, and nervousness (Watson et al., 1988). The literature on stress and coping points to several important distinctions between these two emotional dimensions that have important implications for coping processes. Prolonged negative affect may lead to clinical depression and anxiety disorders. Positive affect, in contrast, triggers an upward spiral toward emotional well-being, broadening the individual's attentional focus and behavioral repertoire and building social, intellectual, and physical resources required to facilitate adaptation (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Positive emotions are therefore considered to be an important aspect of coping with stressful life events and enhanced mental health (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). Awareness of the projected consequences of climate change can be associated with various negative feelings, such as grief associated with changes in nature, feeling threatened by the potential loss of security, or losing confidence in the natural world (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020). In measuring emotional responses to climate change, some studies focus on specific emotions, claiming that these have a differential impact on climate action and mental health (e.g., Stanley et al., 2021). Yet, based on the research on emotions described above, it is advocated to examine the structure of climate emotions and group them by meaningful measures (Pihkala, 2022; Tam et al.,2023). Initially, most research on climate change emotions focused on negative emotions (Brosch, 2021; Bamberg et al., 2018). In recent years more research attention has been directed toward positive emotions as well (Ojala, 2023; Pihkala, 2022; Schneider et al., 2022). Ojala for example, conducted a series of studies on hope in the context of climate change, stressing the ability of hope to enhance adaptive coping associated both with climate action and with well-being (Ojala, 2012a,2012b,2023). Ojala (2012a) claimed that because negative emotions are a realistic response to climate change, it is important to find effective ways of handling such feelings. This approach is in line with research on the role of positive affect in coping with stressful events described above. Similarly, Sangervo et al. (2022) contend that climate hope and efficacy should be measured since they may moderate the effect of CCA on behavior (Sangervo et al., 2022).
Indifference. Feeling indifferent about climate change is tantamount to being bored with this topic and perceiving it as unimportant (Marczak et al., 2022). Indifference is considered to be the emotional component of denial: It is a defensive, self-protective strategy that serves to suppress or avoid uncomfortable emotions and distress. Indifference is sometimes defined as implicatory denial of climate change (recognition of climate change as a problem but denial of its psychological, political, and moral implications) (Wullenkord et al., 2021; Wullenkord & Reese, 2021). The assumption is that indifference is part of emotion management and is motivated by a desire to avoid unpleasant emotions such as helplessness and guilt (Nogaard, 2006). It also can be seen as an aspect of emotion-focused coping strategy, which is aimed at reducing aversive feelings emerging in the face of stressful events through processes of denial, avoidance, and distancing (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
CCA. People’s feelings regarding climate change may vary in intensity (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Pihkala, 2021). CCA is characterized by an intense and cognitive-emotional response to climate change that includes anxiety, worried thoughts, and concerns about physiological changes brought on by the climate crisis (Sangervo et al., 2022). CCA is differentiated from climate worry based on its intensity and its potential to affect daily life: Whereas concerns about climate change are a common and natural response to current threatening projections, CCA is characterized by an intense emotional reaction that may interfere with daily cognitive and behavioral functioning (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020). CCA has both mild and more severe manifestations (Sangervo et al., 2022). Although CCA is associated with impairment in mental health, it is still considered to be a rational response to climate crises and not a pathological psychological condition (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Hickman et al., 2021; Sangervo et al., 2022). Nevertheless, due to CCA’s potential impact on mental health, it is important to investigate its prevalence, its predictors, and the ways it is associated with adaptive and maladaptive functioning (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Whitemarsh, et al., 2022). Until recently there was very little conceptual clarity regarding the concept of CCA that had the power to leverage rigorous research. Clayton and Karazsia (2020) recently developed a valid scale for measuring CCA known as the Climate Change Anxiety Scale (CCAS). This scale has been validated and tested among several samples in the US (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Tam et al., 2023), Europe (Mouguiama - Daouda et al., 2021; Whitmarsh et al., 2022; Wullenkord et al., 2021), and Asia (Simon et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2023). Yet, more research is needed to investigate the worldwide prevalence of CCA, and specifically to examine societies that are more likely to be affected by climate change (Tam et al., 2023).
What is the Prevalence of Different Emotional Responses to Climate Change?
Worries and concerns about climate are quite prevalent. In an international study that investigated the reported experience of 14 distinct emotions among young people, more than 50% of respondents reported negative emotions such as sadness, and anger (Hickman et al., 2021). In a UK study, over 40% of participants reported being worried about climate change (Whitmarsh et al., 2022). Yet, despite the high prevalence of negative emotional responses to climate change, reported levels of CCA are low. Most studies that used the validated CCAS instrument found that the average level of CCA was below the scale’s midpoint (e.g., Simon et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2023; Wullenkord et al., 2021).
While research on the prevalence of negative emotions and CCA is relatively adequate, the prevalence of positive emotions has not received sufficient research attention. As noted above, Ojala (2012a, 2012b, 2023) examined the positive emotion of hope, though information on its prevalence is limited. The few studies reporting on the distribution of positive emotions show prevalence rates ranging from 30% to 46% (Hickman et al, 2021; Smit & Leiserowitz, 2014). Information on the prevalence of indifference is also limited. Hickman et al. (2021) found that 29% of participants reported feeling indifferent.
How are Different Emotional Responses to Climate Change Associated with Mental Impairment and PEB?
Positive emotions. As noted above, positive emotions are associated with mental health and are considered important in coping with stressful life events (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). In line with the assertion that “feeling good about doing the ‘right thing’ can be an important motivator for behavior change” (Smith & Leiserowitz, 2014), positive emotions were found to be associated with several pro-environmental behaviors (refer to Schneider et al, 2021 for a review). Nevertheless, very little research has investigated the role of positive emotional responses to climate change in promoting mental health and PEB, and most studies in this area focused on one emotion: hope. Findings on the correlations between hope and climate engagement are not consistent (Ojala, 2023). This result can be partly explained by the fact that in some cases hope is unrealistic and related to denial instead of agency. The association between hope and climate engagement is therefore dependent on the sources of hope (Ojala, 2012b, 2023).
Negative emotions. Negative emotions were found to be associated with both impairments in well-being and climate action (Brosch, 2021). The motivational engine of negative emotions appears to be driven by undesirable emotional states, which people seek to reduce through action (van Valkengoed, & Steg, 2019). Nevertheless, prolonged negative affect may be harmful to mental health (Gross & Muñoz, 1995). Some empirical results point to such associations in the context of climate change as well. For example, Whitmarsh et al. (2022) found a significant correlation between climate concerns and generalized anxiety, Stanley et al. (2021) found positive associations between eco-anxiety and eco-depression measures and impaired mental health, and Searl and Gow (2010) found a relationship between climate concerns and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress.
Indifference. As indicated, indifference can serve as part of an emotion-focused coping strategy individuals use to reduce negative feelings when faced with a stressful situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Researchers have suggested that although such strategies may help mitigate anxiety in the short term, they may be associated with higher levels of anxiety in the long run (Schäfer et al., 2017; Wullenkord et al., 2021). Furthermore, research on coping strategies found that emotion-focused coping is used more by individuals with depression and is associated with high levels of distress (Leandro & Castillo, 2010; Rice et al., 2020). Regarding the link between indifference and PEB, Norgaard (2006) found that although people accept the existence of climate change, their indifferent emotional response often stops them from acting. Similarly, Ojala (2012a) found that the use of de-emphasizing strategy toward climate change is associated with low behavioral engagement. Wullenkord and Reese (2021) also found an association between various forms of denial (cognitive and emotional) and PEB.
CCA. Research on CCA points to links to generalized anxiety (GA) and depression (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Whitemarsh et al., 2022; Wullenkord et al., 2021). Yet because CCA is measured along a continuum, only higher levels have the potential to affect mental health (Clayton et al., 2023). Based on these findings, some researchers suggested that individuals with existing mental health disorders may be vulnerable to higher levels of CCA (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Whitemarsh et al., 2022). Dew to the projected impacts of climate change the prevalence of climate change is likely to grow. Hence, it is important to study its predictors and consequences (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Tam et al., 2023). Moreover, most studies found positive statistical correlations between CCA and PEB engagement (Mouguiama – Daouda et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2023; Sangervo et al., 2022; Wullenkord et al., 2021), though other studies did not find such an association (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020). In addition, some variability exists in the extent to which CCA explains different kinds of PEB (Tam et al., 2023; Whitemarsh et al., 2022). Bamberg et al. (2018) recently suggested that due to the collective nature of the human impact on climate change, environmental psychology research should pay more attention to collective rather than private-sphere climate action (Bamberg et al., 2018). In the case of research on CCA, most studies do not distinguish between private-sphere and collective behavior. Such a distinction may lead to a better understanding of the links between CCA and PEB. One relevant study found that while CCA predicted both types of action, its prediction of collective PEB tended to be greater (Tam et al., 2023).
How do Different Emotions Toward Climate Change Predict CCA?
Since the introduction of the CCAS scale, an increasing number of studies have investigated the prevalence of CCA, its association with demographic variables such as age, and gender, mental health, and PEB (e.g., Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Tam et al., 2023; Whitmarsh et al., 2022, Wullenkord et al., 2021). Some studies have investigated the association between emotional responses to climate change and CCA as distinct variables (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020; Tam et al., 2023; Whitmarsh et al., 2022), whereas other scholars have suggest coalescing these two variables and focusing only on CCA (e.g., Ogunbode et al., 2022). Moreover, research on how positive emotional responses to climate change and indifference are associated with CCA is very limited. The only study that was found that addresses such association focused on hope (Sangervo, 2022). This study found positive association between hope and CCA, which was explain by the fact that both are reactions to uncertainty. Overall, information on this topic is very limited, and more research is needed to clarify the associations between CCA and other emotional responses to climate change.
The Present Study
This study contributes to previous research by investigating how various emotional responses to climate change are associated with mental health and PEB, and how do negative emotions toward climate change eare distinguished from CCA. The study was conducted in October 2022 in Israel. Although Israel is a developed country, it is considered at high risk for climate change effects. The rate of global warming in Israel is almost two times greater than the global rate. Moreover, Israel is vulnerable to climate change risks such as intense heat waves and increased desertification (Israel Meteorological Service, 2021). Nevertheless, the state of Israel has yet to make the necessary perceptual shift (State Comptroller and Ombudsman of Israel, 2021), and a recent report of OECD has stated that Israel is not on track to reach its climate change targets (OECD, 2023). Furthermore, a 2016 survey found that relative to the citizens of most European nations, Israelis were rather skeptical about or unaware of climate change, exhibiting the lowest average rate of concern about climate change of all 24 countries surveyed (Poortinga et al., 2019). Considering the projected consequences of climate change in Israel, more in-depth investigation is needed to explore perceptions, emotional responses, and behavioral responses to climate change in this country. The study’s objectives are threefold: (a) to clarify similarities and differences between CCA and other emotional responses to climate change in predicting mental health impairment and PEB engagement; (b) to explore how different emotional responses to climate change are related to CCA; and (c) to explore the prevalence of CCA and other emotional responses to climate change in Israel.
Based on the theoretical background, the study investigated the following hypotheses:
H1. Impaired mental health will be positively related to (a) negative emotions, (b) feelings of indifference, and (c) CCA, and will be negatively related to (d) positive emotions.
H2. Engagement in PEB will be positively related to (a) negative emotions, (b) positive emotions, and (c) CCA, and will be negatively related to (d) indifference.
Moreover, very little data is available on the role the three types of emotions toward climate change in explaining CCA. Hence, this investigation is exploratory, and no hypotheses are posited.