According to the current study's findings, livestock were primarily contaminated via eating or coming into touch with the leaves and other elements of the toxic plants. Among the animal health professionals surveyed, 84.6% noted that the area's livestock health issues are primarily caused by plant poisoning (Fig. 2). The majority of perennial plants, including shrubs and bushes, have been shown to contain toxic secondary metabolites. According to the information gathered from the respondents, the condition is caused by a shortage of forage supply resulting from a variety of factors, including overgrazing, drought, agricultural expansion, and soil erosion. The investigation's outcome supported20 conclusions.
Several of the species found in this study were also found in Horo Guduru Wollega, where the most commonly reported poisonous plants in the examined area were Solanum americanum, Cyperus rotundus, Amaranthus spp., and Rumex crispus (Fig. 3). Nonetheless, there were differences in the range and kind of numerous toxic plants in the Bako district12,21. The variations may arise from the growing of different plants in diverse geographic locations with distinct edaphic and climatic conditions. The differences in the chemical makeup of various poisonous plants in various locations are also influenced by these characteristics. Each plant has a different concentration of the harmful compounds. Toxin content and distribution in plants are influenced by a variety of factors, including the species, geographic location, and individual plant parts. Recurrent use of the species as a main feed may result in toxicity, even if the concentration of poisonous chemicals is occasionally so low as to be regarded excellent fodder10.
These plants are poisonous, according to the responses of10, and the good effects usually happen at smaller amounts, while overdosing can result in poisoning. Folk medicine uses these herbs to cure human and animal problems. According to5, this result is consistent. Plants can be poisonous in a number of ways, including their leaves, branches, bark, roots, seeds, and, occasionally, entire plants. The formation of chemicals in plant parts can have toxic effects on humans and animals under specific circumstances22.
While some plants thrive throughout the dry season, others wait for the spring and summer rains to come before emerging into growth. April through May and July through September are the months with the highest rates of precipitation. Some plant species utilized as animal feed, particularly grasses, experience rapid growth during the beginning of the rainy season. This phenomenon is typically linked to an increase in the accumulation of potentially poisonous chemicals like alkaloids. Consistent with the findings of21, the current investigation showed a correlation between drought and an increase in the degree of animal poisoning caused by these hazardous plants. During rainy seasons, animals are more likely to consume dangerous plants due to the rapid growth of leaves and the build-up of potentially harmful substances9. Poisonous plants can also be consumed by animals; this is especially true in situations where the fields are poor and major feeds are scarce because of adverse conditions like drought. The majority of edible plants in this study area dry up during droughts, as stated by the respondents, yet numerous poisonous plants stay green and attractive and serve as the main source of food for animals.
Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum and Amaranthus cruentus grow in synchronize with the rainy season because of they are shrub type forage. Due to this cattle and equine consume with other forages and poisoned based on the information collected and observed by the researchers during field survey. In accordance with23 the chemical composition of those toxic plants differs depending on where they are from. Various edaphic and climatic conditions allow various plants to grow in different places. These elements also affect how plants are chemically composed, which explains why various hazardous plants can be found in different parts of the world. Nonetheless, some of the plants found in this study have been linked to comparable effects on animals in other studies. In Iran, for example, Amaranthus retroflexus, or red root, has been reported to poison livestock24. It has already been established that the tissues of these plants contain nitrate. Likewise, studies have emphasized the significance of Trifolium spp. as a source of cattle toxicity25.
These agroecological variations of poisonous plant distribution are due to a number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, soil type, humidity, and others26. A number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, and other conditions, may affect the growth of plants, which in turn affects the quality of herbal ingredients present in a particular species, even if they are produced in the same region. According to the information gathered during the field survey, most of the poisonous plants are commonly used in folk medicine not only for livestock but also for humans because they exhibit antioxidant properties, which in turn inhibit the propagation of free radical reactions and protect the human body from disease.
This study concludes that farmers may be directly or indirectly impacted by the financial losses brought on by these toxic plants. Decreases in productivity, animal deaths, abortions, weight loss (from disease or reduced feed intake), longer calving intervals, decreased fertility, diminished function from damage to organs like the nervous system, lungs, liver, etc., loss of breeding stock from deaths, functional inefficiency, etc. are examples of direct losses of livestock. The costs associated with prevention, treatment, and managing poisoned animals are the indirect losses (costs). Other costs include fences constructed and maintained to manage livestock at risk due to poisonous plants, herding livestock to prevent poisoning, supplemental feeding to prevent poisoning, modified grazing programs that may result in increased costs or inefficient grazing, medical costs associated with poisoning, and forage lost because it could not be harvested at the appropriate time or intensity. Although hard to measure, these expenses do exist27. When there is a lack of food, animals may be forced to browse perennial shrubs and bushes, many of which have been shown to contain hazardous secondary metabolites28. As indicated by several studies and supported by the data from this investigation, poisonous plants can coexist alongside forage plants and are thus easily accessed by grazing animals.
Whenever feasible, specialized antidotes should be used to treat plant poisoning rapidly. This condition is primarily an emergency that requires careful management. Correct identification and avoidance of these plants is the key to preventing issues with poisonous plants, though. It is very important to look for harmful plants in fence rows, hay fields, and pastures. Be especially cautious and search for these plants in newly designated grazing or haying areas if there is a drought or a year with little feed. The animals are healthy and will stay away from most toxic plants if there is enough meal available. However, animals are driven to consume food during the dry season due to acute feed shortages. Effective range management is therefore one of the best strategies to reduce the risk of plant poisoning in the region. Our study revealed that the most effective method of avoiding toxic weed infestations is to maintain a healthy and well-managed pasture. Eradication by uprooting and fencing off infected areas are two further strategies that might work29.
According to this study, plant poisoning has had a major negative influence on livestock producers' and seriously harmed animals' health. For decades, Ethiopians have used various plants, particularly those used by farmers and traditional animal healers, to treat livestock ailments. However, due to incorrect utilization of these plants, livestock health may have been compromised. In Ethiopia, medicinal plants remain the most easily accessible and reasonably priced means of treating a variety of human and animal illnesses. The aforementioned toxic plant has several secondary metabolites, each of which has a distinct purpose. For example, tannins have antibacterial properties, flavonoids have potent anticancer properties, and some alkaloids may be helpful in the fight against HIV infection. Most plants that are found in and around their surroundings but could be dangerous if consumed, injected, or come into contact with the skin are not well known to most people, and most plant poisoning in animals only occurs when an animal eats it by accident30. Farmers primarily utilize these plants as fence, however the milk-like droplets from Euphorbia tirucalli and Hedera canariensis harm the exposed animals' skin and eyes.